Bhutan
Burma
China
India
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Pakistan
Russia
Taiwan
Tajikistan; Mentioned 11 territories of Manchu-Korean 3 Kingdoms since 1910 have illegally robbed by the modern day properties by eleven countries.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty
Qing Dynasty of Manchu-Korean Three Kingdoms fought constant Russian encroachment of Chinese territories as well as the 1550's perod when French raged a war against Manchu territories
; French-Jew-Commerce-Merchants coveted Opium productions as well as silk.
Both in honor of the earlier Jurchen Jin dynasty in the 12–13th century and his Aisin Gioro clan (Aisin being the Manchu for the Chinese 金 (jīn, "gold")) Nurhachi originally named his state theGreat Jin (lit "Gold") dynasty, afterwards called the Later Jin Dynasty by historians. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing (lit "Clarity") in 1636. The name "Qing" was selected in reaction to the name of the Ming Dynasty (明) which consists of the characters for "sun" (日) and "moon" (月), both associated with the fire element. The character Qing (清) is composed of "water" (氵) and "azure" (青), both associated with the water element. This association would explain the Qing conquest through defeat of fire by water. The water imagery of the new name may also have had Buddhist overtones of perspicacity and enlightenment and connections with the Bodhisattva Manjusri.[3]The state was known internationally as China[4] or the Chinese Empire.[5] In the Chinese-language versions of its treaties and its maps of the world, the Qing government used "Qing" and "China" (simplified Chinese: 中国; traditional Chinese: 中國; pinyin: Zhōngguó) interchangeably.[6]Less commonly, it was also known in the romanization of the time as the Ta Tsing Empire[7][8]from the Chinese for "Empire of the Great Qing" (大清帝国, Dà Qīng Dìguó).
In 1644, Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels and the last Ming Emperor Chongzhen committed suicide. The Manchus (Qing Dynasty) then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing. Remnant Ming forces led by Koxinga fled toTaiwan, where they eventually capitulated to Qing forces in 1683. Taiwan, previously inhabited mostly by non-Han aborigines, was Sinicized via large-scale migration accompanied with assimilation during this period, despite efforts by the Manchus to prevent this, as they found it difficult to maintain control over the island. In 1681, the emperor ordered construction of theWillow Palisade to prevent Han Chinese migration to the three northeastern provinces, which nevertheless harbored a significant Chinese population for centuries, especially in the southernLiaodong area. The Manchus designated the provinces as "Manchuria", to which the Manchus could hypothetically escape and regroup if the dynasty fell.[27] But because of increasing Russian territorial encroachment and annexation of neighboring territory, the Qing later reversed its policy and allowed the consolidation of a demographic Han majority in northeast China.汉族 (simplified, Pinyin Hànzú, traditional 漢族)Han Chinese (the largest ethnic group indigenous to China)http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Chinese
The Qing Dynasty was founded not by Han Chinese, who form the majority of the Chinese population, but by a semi-sedentary people known as the Jurchen, a Tungusic people who lived around the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of Jilin and Heilongjiang.[9
Xiang is a subdivision of Chinese Dialects that originates from Hunan.Hunan cuisine is noted for its use of chili peppers.Nü shu is a writing system that was used exclusively among women in Jiangyong County.
Hunan became an important communications center due to its position on the Yangzi River (Changjiang). It was also on the Imperial Highway constructed between northern and southern China. The land produced grain so abundantly that it fed many parts of China with its surpluses. The population continued to climb until, by the nineteenth century, Hunan became overcrowded and prone to peasant uprisings. Some of the uprisings were caused by ethnic tensions like ten-years long Miao people rebellion of 1795-1806.The Taiping Rebellion began to the south in Guangxi Province in 1850. The rebellion spread into Hunan and then further eastward along the Yangzi River valley. Ultimately, it was a Hunanese army under Zeng Guofan who marched into Nanjing to put down the uprising in 1864.Hunan was relatively quiet until 1910 when there were uprisings against the crumbling Qing dynasty, which were followed by the Communist's Autumn Harvest Uprising of 1927. It was led by Hunanese native Mao Zedong, and established a short-lived Hunan Soviet in 1927. The Communists maintained a guerrilla army in the mountains along the Hunan-Jiangxi border until 1934. Under pressure from the Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) forces, they began the famousLong March to bases in Shaanxi Province. After the departure of the Communists, the KMT army fought against the Japanese in the second Sino-Japanese war. They defended the capitalChangsha until it fell in 1944. Japan launched Operation Ichigo, a plan to control the railroad from Wuchang to Guangzhou (Yuehan Railway). Hunan was relatively unscathed by the civil war that followed the defeat of the Japanese in 1945. In 1949, the Communists returned once more as the Nationalists retreated southward.As Mao Zedong's home province, Hunan supported the Cultural Revolution of 1966-1976. However, it was slower than most provinces in adopting the reforms implemented by Deng Xiaoping in the years that followed Mao's death in 1976.
Western Hanpainting on silk was found draped over the coffin in the grave of Lady Dai (c. 168 BC) atMawangdui near Changsha in Hunan province.
Hunan Providence of China mirrors Baekje Kingdom descendents of Jeolla Providence that inckudes Jeju Island of Korea; even after the erasure and genocide of Korean-Manchu ancestry since 1910; Generatons of koreans have edible tradition of cooked silkworms, snails, as well as medicine uses of Zhousan Daffodils that are native also to Jeju Island Daffodils.
호남(湖南)
Hunan Providence of China also mirrors Jeju Island descendents of Jeolla Providence of Baekje Kindom.
Korean Baekje Kindom settled in Jeolla Providence that includes Jeju Island has historial roots to Modern day China's Hanan Providence; Note since 1910, Meiji Japs invading Korea-Manchu territories altered documentations of Korean Ancestry as well as alterjng Korean Writing; The Nahm- meaning Southern area in Korean is pronunciated as "Nahn" in modern day China. Yet, Old Chinese characters used before 1910s show Jeju Island descendents of Baekje Kingdom mirrors the Korean roots in the Zhousan Providence; specificallly the Yellow Daffodils and snails of Zhousan Providence mirrors that of Jeju Island culture of Baekje Kingdom descendents.
수선화(水仙花 Narcissus tazetta)와 호남(湖南)
Narcissus is a genus of mainly hardy, mostly spring-flowering, bulbous perennials in the Amaryllis family, subfamily Amaryllidoideae. Various common names including daffodil, narcissus, and jonquil are used to describe all or some of the genus. WikipediaScientific name: NarcissusRank: GenusHigher classification: Amaryllidoideae
maryllidaceae Narcissus
Jeju Island has roots to Zhousan Providence floral, Narcissus.
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Chinese narcissus (Narcissus Tazetta L. var. Chinensis Roem) under Amaryllidaceae Narcissus is a perennial herb, is a variant of Narcissus. Narcissus is one of the top ten traditional flowers in China are mainly distributed in Zhangzhou, Fujian, Shanghai Chongming, Zhoushan, Zhejiang and other places, the most prestigious in Zhangzhou narcissus. However, due to Chinese narcissus breeding slow, single species, and severe degradation, can not meet the market demand, severely limiting the further development of Chinese narcissus. Narcissus so improved varieties imminent. In this study, Chinese narcissus as the material, in the establishment of efficient regeneration system, based on the initial establishment of the Chinese narcissus genetic transformation system and radiation mutagenesis in vitro system for the establishment of improved varieties of daffodils technology system to provide research base. The main results are as follows: 1 using 55 ~ 60 ℃ 2min sterile water treatment can not only reduce the contamination rate to below 5%, and effectively prevent the browning process of tissue culture, the explants differentiation rate and multiplication factor greatly; different sources of differentiation of different explants, cold treatment of narcissus bulbs Bulbs 40d disk is the preferred material for tissue culture, cold treatment can not only improve the bulb plate differentiation rate, but also shortens the time required for differentiation.The "Sea Snail and Narcissus" urban sculpture, at the entrance of Dinghai's Cultural Square, is the symbol of Zhoushan.
Korean pow were left dead while Caucasians were save;On October 1, 1942, the Japanese Lisbon Maru (里斯本丸) transported 1,800 POW back to Tokyo, butLisbon Maru sank after being hit by a torpedo near Qingbing Island (青浜). 384 of the British POW overboard were rescued by the fishermen of Dongji Township (东极乡) nearby.
As early as the South Song Dynasty, there were written records about it. Since the 1970s, wild narcissus have been transplanted and cultivated. It wins favourable comments from flower experts for its large bulbs, numerous flowers and thick fragrance. In 1981, it was officially named Putuoshan Narcissus and ranked with Zhangzhou Narcissus and Chongming Narcissus as the three best varieties of narcissus in our country. It is the city flower of Zhoushan
. The Daffodil (Narcissus) is yet another flower that blooms in the beginning of spring. They have a very distinct look with their yellow, trumpet shaped blossoms
.Common Name: Korean chrysanthemumBotanical Name: Dendranthema zawadskiiVarieties/Cultivars to Look for: ‘Hillside Sheffield Pink’, ‘Clara Curtis’Color: White, pale yellow, warm and cool pinkBlooming Period: Fall to late fallType: Hardy perennialSize: 24 inches tall by 24 inches wideExposure: Full sunWhen to Plant: Transplant in spring or plant container-grown plants spring through fall.
Chrysanthemum x 'Single Apricot Korean' (Asteraceae)(kris-ANTH-e-mum) Apricot Fall Daisy.
. In Korea, it is known well for its medicinal use for making people more alert and is often used as a pick-me-up to render the drinker more awake. In western herbal medicine, Chrysanthemum tea is drunk or used as a compress to treat circulatory disorders such as varicose veins and atherosclerosis.In traditional Chinese medicine, chrysanthemum tea is also said to clear the liver and the eyes. It is believed to be effective in treating eye pain associated with stress or yin/fluid deficiency. It is also used to treat blurring, spots in front of the eyes, diminished vision, and dizziness.[2] The liver is associated with the element Wood which rules the eyes and is associated with anger, stress, and related emotions. 국화
菊花
Zhoushan yellow chrysanthemum,
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysanthemum
chrysanthemum was first used by Manchu-Korean Kingdom as its official imperial seal before 1910s attack of Jap Meiji destroyed Korean Writing and Korean heritage!!!
이화회관(李花會館 - 전주 이씨 종친회관) 이야기가 흘러 나왔다. 이화회관(李花會館) 건물의 이화문(李花紋). 전주 이씨
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_Korea
The Imperial Seal of Korea or Ihwamun (이화문, 李花紋) is one of the symbols of the Korean Empire. It was originally the emblem of the royal family and was subsequently used for the coat of arms of the short-lived empire. The symbol features a plum flower
.In ancient China, a legend about a poor but good man holds he was brought many cups of gold and wealth by this flower. Since the flower blooms in early spring, it has also become a symbol ofChinese New Year. Narcissus bulb carving and cultivation is even an art akin to Japanese bonsai. If the narcissus blooms on Chinese New Year, it is said to bring extra wealth and good fortune throughout the year. Its sweet fragrances are highly revered in Chinese culture.
Narcissus-daffodil native of Zhousan Providence had medical use to prevent Alzheimers and other medical uses.
Korean three Kingdoms' Royal symbol during alliance with Manchu China before 1910
Is the fooral, Narcisus-daffadils, native of Zhousan Providence!
Zhousan Providence's Island to the East were used by Japs even in 1558 to attack Nanjing...Behold Nanjing Massacre by Jap Meiji Militia occured after Jap invaded Korea-Manchu China.
Zhoushan or Zhoushan Archipelago New Area; formerly transliterated as Chusan, is aprefecture-level city and a state-level new area in northeastern Zhejiang province of Eastern China. One of the two prefecture-level cities of the People's Republic of China consisting solely ofislands (the other is Sansha in Hainan, however its territory is in dispute), it lies across the mouth of the Hangzhou Bay, and is separated from the mainland by a narrow body of water. On 8 July 2011 the central government approved Zhoushan's status as a state-level new area.
HistoryEdit
The archipelago was inhabited 6,000 years ago during the Neolithic by people of the Hemudu culture. During the Spring and Autumn Period, Zhoushan was called Yongdong (甬东), referring to its location east of the Yong River, and belonged to the State of Yue. The fishermen and sailors who inhabited the islands often engaged in piracy and became recruits for uprisings against the central authorities. At the time of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhoushan Islands served as the base for Sun En's rebellion. Sun En, an adherent of the Taoist sect Wudou Midao (Five Bushels of Rice), launched his rebellion around the year 400 and was defeated by Jin forces in 402.[1] In 863, theJapanese Buddhist monk Hui'e (慧锷; Egaku)[2] and a Putuoshan local Zhang-shi (张氏) placed a statue of Guanyin at Chaoyin Cave (潮音洞) that would later become a popular tourist and pilgrim destination. During the Ming dynasty, especially between the years 1530 and 1560, Japanese and Chinese pirates used Zhoushan as one of their principal bases from which they launched attacks as far as Nanjing; "the whole Chinese coast from northern Shandong to westernGuangdong was ravaged to a distance of sixty miles inland."[3]After suppression of the pirates, Zhoushan became an important commercial entrepôt. Under the early Qing dynasty, it played a similar role to Amoy and Canton as a frequent port of call for Western traders.[4] The restriction of all European trade to the port of Canton in 1760 forced Westerners to leave Zhoushan. One of the requests of Lord Macartney's embassy to emperorQianlong in 1793 was an acquisition of "a small unfortified island near Zhoushan for the residence of English traders, storage of goods, and outfitting of ships." Emperor Qianlong denied this request together with all the rest.[5]British forces under Captain Charles Elliot captured Zhoushan on 5–6 July 1840 during the First Opium War and evacuated it in early 1841, after Elliot reached an agreement with Qishan, the governor general of Tianjin and grand secretary to the Daoguang Emperor, in exchange for cession of Hong Kong.[6] At that time, Zhoushan was a well known port while Hong Kong was still only a fishing village. The British Foreign Secretary Palmerston was famously livid when he learned that Elliot agreed to the cession of Hong Kong ("a barren island with hardly a house on it") while giving up Zhoushan. Elliot was dismissed in April 1841 for his blunder.[7] His replacement Sir Henry Pottinger led a British fleet that recaptured Zhoushan on October 1, 1841.[8] The First Opium War ended with conclusion of the Treaty of Nanking in which China opened up the cities of Canton, Fuzhou, Amoy (Xiamen), Ningbo, and Shanghai to residence by British subjects for the purpose of trade. As a result, Britain no longer had any use for Zhoushan but it kept the island until 1846 as a guarantee for the fulfilment of the stipulations of the treaty.[9]Zhoushan was also occupied by the British in 1860 during the Second Opium War.http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhoushan
Even in 1530, Jap used this island off of Old Chinese providence near Zhusahn to attack Nanjing...A Nanjing massacre by Japs repeated later in history by Meiji Japs after invading Korea ....
Jintang Island (金塘岛) is an island in the Zhoushan prefecture-level city in China's northeasternZhejiang province. It has a population of about 41700.[1]It is one of the closest islands to the continental shore of Zhejiang, being only 3.6 km from the southern Ningbo Beilun port[2] and 6.25 km from the eastern Zhoushan Island.[1] Jintang is Zhoushan's fourth largest island with an area of 76.4 km2 (29.5 sq mi).[2]
HistoryEdit
The name Jintang Island is literally translated as "Golden Pond Island".It derived its name from the 2 ponds built on the western side of the island by the locals to prevent erosion of the western coastline. The soil of the inner pond coastline became fertile and rich in minerals, bringing about bountiful harvests to the locals who dub the island "Golden Pond" (金塘). [1]http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jintang_Island
PlancenoitVillage in BelgiumPlancenoit is a village in the municipality of Lasne, Walloon Brabant, Belgium. The village was a key strategic point during the Battle of Waterloo as it was the main focal point of the Prussians' flank attack on Napoleon's army.
You are absolutely right. He probably served in the 2nd or 4th Grenadiers a Pied ( Foot Grenadiers ) of the French Imperial Guard. Grenadier Burg fought at Waterloo.2nd Grenadiers ( Old Guard ): The 2nd battalion ( II/2nd Grenadiers ) fought like lions against the Prussian onslaught at Plancenoit. Just on a side note, the drum-major of the unit, Stubert, used his baton as a club. This unit was one of the four battalions of the French Guard formed in squares to cover Napoleon's retreat ( the square was never broken ).4th Grenadiers ( Middle Guard ): The 4th Grenadiers took part in the final assault against Wellington's centre.
http://www.armchairgeneral.com/forums/showthread.php?t=72496
Louis Victor Baillot (1793–1898) also from France, was the last Battle of Waterloo veteran. He also saw action at the siege of Hamburg.(See an 1898 photograph)
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars
Amédée Geoffrion (February 6, 1867—January 25, 1935) was a lawyer and politician in Quebec,Canada.Geoffrion was born in Varennes, Canada East on February 6, 1867 to Élie Geoffrion and Marguerite Beauchamp. He studied at Collège de l'Assomption and Université Laval in Montreal. He was admitted to the Bar of Quebec on January 10, 1889.[1]Geoffrion's brother in law was Ernest Tétreau. He was the grandfather of Jérôme Choquette.[1]Geoffrion practiced law in Montreal alongside Joseph-Émery Robidoux, Dominique Monet, Victor Cusson and Omer Goyette.[1]
The so-called Battle of Zhenhai (Chinese: 镇海之役) was a minor confrontation on 1 March 1885 between Admiral Amédée Courbet's Far East Squadron (escadre de l’extrême-Orient) and Chinese warships and shore batteries near the coastal city of Zhenhai, 12 miles downstream ofNingbo, during the Sino-French War (August 1884–April 1885). The 'battle' is of some interest because the French and Chinese sources disagree sharply on what happened. French sources treated the encounter as a minor incident, while Chinese sources celebrated it as a striking defensive victory. The 'battle of Zhenhai' is still commemorated in China as an important Chinese victory in the Sino-French War.
In early February 1885 part of Admiral Courbet's Far East Squadron left Keelung to head off a threatened attempt by part of the Chinese Nanyang Fleet (Southern Seas fleet) to break the French blockade of Formosa (Taiwan). On 11 February Courbet's task force met the cruisers Kaiji(開濟), Nanchen (南琛) and Nanrui (南瑞), three of the most modern ships in the Chinese fleet, near Shipu Bay, accompanied by the frigate Yuyuan (馭遠) and the composite sloop Chengqing(澄慶). The Chinese flotilla, under the command of Admiral Wu Ankang (吳安康), scattered at the French approach, and while the three cruisers successfully made their escape, the French succeeded in trapping Yuyuan and Chengqing in Shipu Bay. On the night of 14 February, in theBattle of Shipu, both ships were crippled in a daring French torpedo attack, Yuyuan by a French spar torpedo and Chengqing by Yuyuan's fire.[1]On 25 February 1885 Admiral Courbet was instructed to implement a 'rice blockade', to prevent ships carrying rice from leaving Shanghai for northern China. On 28 February he arrived off Zhenhai Bay, en route for Shanghai, with the ironclads Bayard and Triomphante, the cruiser Niellyand the troopship Saône. Suspecting that Kaiji, Nanchen and Nanrui had taken refuge in Zhenhai Bay, Courbet scouted the entrance to the bay at dawn on 1 March. Not only could he see the masts of the three Chinese cruisers, but he was also able to identify four other Chinese warships: the composite sloop Chaowu (超武), the wooden transport Yuankai (元凱), and two 'alphabetical' gunboats. The entrance to the bay had been blocked by a barrage of sunken junks by the Chinese authorities, and was also defended by two recently built forts.[2]
The 'battle of Zhenhai', 1 March 1885Edit
French map of the battle of ZhenhaiNielly's guns in action at Zhenhai, 1 March 1885Early in the afternoon of 1 March Courbet reconnoitred closer on board Nielly. The Chinese shore batteries and Chinese warships opened a vigorous fire. They were firing at extreme long range, but some of their shots landed within a hundred metres of the French cruiser. Unharmed, Niellyreturned fire and slowly rejoined the squadron. The duel lasted a little over half an hour, and it is doubtful whether Nielly’s fire was much more effective than that of the Chinese, though the French claimed to have killed a number of soldiers ashore and inflicted slight damage on one of the shore batteries.[3]On the evening of 1 March Courbet gave orders for an attack the next day, but on the morning of 2 March the risks of the operation became evident. Silencing the Chinese batteries would be a long and slow business, and while the French ironclads were duelling with the forts they would be exposed to the fire of the three Chinese cruisers. Even if the French warships succeeded in suppressing the Chinese defences and forcing the barrage, the Chinese cruisers might still have eluded them by heading upriver towards Ningbo. Courbet decided not to incur unnecessary casualties, and cancelled the planned attack.[4]
The French blockade of Zhenhai, March–June 1885Edit
The battle of Zhenhai (Chinese print)On 2 March the French ships rested. On 3 March Courbet had soundings taken at various points around the entrance to the bay, in a vain search for a position from which the French ironclads could reach the Chinese cruisers with their guns without coming under fire from the Chinese forts. There were no such positions, and Courbet eventually issued orders for a blockade of Zhenhai Bay. Nets were spread around the French ships, as a precaution against a possible Chinese torpedo attack. A watch was kept around the clock on the entrance to the bay, and any junks or sampans that came too close to the French ships were fired on.[5]These precautions turned out to be unnecessary. Far from making plans for an attack on the French squadron, the Chinese commanders appear to have been afraid that the French would send their torpedo boats into the Ningpo river to repeat their recent triumph in the Battle of Shipu. On the night of 2 March, as the French squadron lay at anchor, a searchlight suddenly began to sweep the Chinese barrage, several flares soared into the air, and the sound of cannon fire and rifle fire from within the bay disturbed the silence of the night. Nervous Chinese sentries had mistakenly identified a harmless fishing boat as a French torpedo boat and immediately given the alarm. The French listened in disbelief as the Chinese blazed away until dawn at an imaginary enemy.[6]The scene was repeated, on an almost nightly basis, for the rest of the month. At least two ships of the Far East Squadron remained anchored at the entrance to Zhenhai Bay throughout March. Apparently unable or unwilling to attack the French warships, the Chinese treated them instead to an expensive firework display. Whether the Chinese commanders were still haunted by the fear of a night torpedo attack or were simply attempting to cheer up their troops, the results were pleasing enough. One or two of the more professionally minded French officers complained at the prodigious waste of ammunition sanctioned by the enemy generals, but most enjoyed the nocturnal display of flashes and detonations above Zhenhai Bay as a welcome respite from the tedium of blockade service. The only significant incident of the blockade was a brief cannonade by the French ships towards the end of March, to prevent the Chinese from attempting to repair their damaged forts.[7]
The Chinese versionEdit
Bayard, Triomphante and Nielly under fire from Chinese shore batteries at ZhenhaiAs far as the French were concerned, they had bottled up seven Chinese warships in Zhenhai Bay, where they remained immobilised for the rest of the war. Although Courbet had not gone in after them, locating and trapping the Chinese warships ranked as a strategic success comparable to the destruction of Yuyuan and Chengqing a fortnight earlier. But that was not how the Chinese saw things. Courbet’s decision not to force the defences of Zhenhai Bay allowed the Chinese to claim the brief engagement on 1 March as a striking defensive victory. The half-hour exchange of shots between Nielly and the Chinese shore batteries became a six-hour battle in which Courbet’s ships were roughly handled and the French commander was seriously wounded, and the brief engagement on 1 March was stretched into a three-day battle from 1 to 3 March, in which the French repeatedly attacked and were repulsed.[8]The Chinese version crystallised shortly after the war, with the erection of a commemorative tablet near the site of the engagement in 1889 by the Chinese general Ouyang Lijian (歐陽利見), who had been charged with the defence of Ningbo and Zhenhai. According to Ouyang's account, the defence of the town was in the hands of the Chinese military mandarins Xue Fucheng (薛福成), Liu Bingzhang (劉秉璋) and himself. The hero of the battle was the artillery officer Wu Jie (吳杰), who directed the fire of a battery of cannon. Wu Jie defied direct orders not to fire on the French, and precipitated the battle by ordering his men to open fire. The Chinese cannon inflicted terrible damage on the French ships, hitting both Bayard and Nielly, and a shot aimed in person by Wu Jie severely wounded the ‘terrible Guba’ (as the Chinese called Courbet). After the battle was over, Wu Jie expected to be commended for his prowess. Instead, he was punished for disobedience.
Arlington's version
AftermathEdit
Admiral Adrien-Barthélémy-Louis Rieunier (1833–1918)Preliminaries of peace between France and China were signed on 4 April 1885, but the French maintained their blockades of Zhenhai and the Yangzi River until a substantive peace treaty ending the Sino-French War (the Treaty of Tientsin) was signed on 9 June. On 11 June 1885 Admiral Courbet died of dysentery aboard his flagship Bayard in Makung harbour, where most of the Far East Squadron had been stationed since the end of the Pescadores Campaign (late March 1885). On 13 June Admiral Adrien-Barthélémy-Louis Rieunier, who was then stationed off Shanghai with the ironclad Turenne, officially notified the Chinese authorities at Shanghai of Courbet's death. He also sent word to the military commissioner Ouyang Lijian at Zhenhai. As France and China were now at peace, the Chinese lowered their flags to half-mast from the Zhenhai shore batteries, in accordance with international protocol. Only three months earlier, these same batteries had done their best to kill the French admiral.[12]Admiral Rieunier later heard that the French might have captured all seven Chinese ships without loss had they attacked the Zhenhai defences on 2 March 1885. The French admiral was told shortly after the end of the war by the British consul at Ningbo that Courbet’s arrival had created such alarm that the Chinese ship captains were ready to surrender if the French made a serious attack on the defences of Zhenhai. As the British were keen to preserve their neutrality, the consul had punctiliously refrained from conveying this valuable information to the French
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zhenhai
French fight Manchu-China-Three Kingdom Korea in 1885.
Luce is an American, English, Irish, Scottish, Welsh, French and Italian surname.[citation needed] It is also a French and Italian feminine given name, variant of Lucia and Lucy, meaning "light".The English Luce surname is taken from the Norman language that was Latin-based and derives from place names in Normandy based on Latin male personal name Lucius. It was transmitted to England after the Norman Conquest in the 11th century. Alternative spellings and related names are: Luci, Lucy, Lucey, Lucie, Lucia, Luke.
Clare Boothe Luce (March 10, 1903[1] – October 9, 1987) was the first American woman appointed to a major ambassadorial post abroad. A versatile author, she is best known for her 1936 hit play The Women, which had an all-female cast. Her writings extended from drama and screen scenarios to fiction, journalism, and war reportage. She was the wife of Henry Luce, publisher of Time, Life and Fortune.Politically, Luce was a Republican who became steadily more conservative in later life. In her youth however, she flirted briefly with the Democratic liberalism of Franklin D. Roosevelt, as a protege of Bernard Baruch.[2] During her two terms as a Congresswoman from Connecticut in the early 1940s, her moderate views, especially toward blacks, immigrants, and women denied professional careers, contrasted with those of most of men in her party. Although she was a strong supporter of the Anglo-American alliance in World War II, she remained outspokenly critical of the British presence in India.[3] A charismatic and forceful public speaker, especially after her conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1946, she campaigned for every Republican presidential candidate from Wendell Willkie to Ronald Reagan.
Early lifeEdit
Luce was born Ann Clare Boothe in New York City on March 10, 1903, the second child of Anna Clara Schneider (aka Ann Snyder Murphy; aka Ann Boothe, aka Ann Clare Austin) and William Franklin Boothe (aka "John J. Murphy"; aka "Jord Murfe").[4] Her parents were not married and would separate in 1912. Her father, a sophisticated man and a brilliant violinist,[5] instilled in his daughter a love of literature, if not of music. But William Boothe had trouble holding down any job, and spent years as a travelling salesman. Parts of young Clare's childhood were spent in Memphis and Nashville, Tennessee, Chicago, Illinois, and Union City, New Jersey as well as New York City.[6] Clare Boothe had an elder brother, David Franklin Boothe. As adults, they were both plagued by suspicions that they had been born illegitimate, a fact that Clare had difficulty admitting to all her life.[7]She attended schools in Garden City and Tarrytown, New York, graduating in 1919. Her ambitious mother's initial plan for her was to become an actress. Clare understudied Mary Pickford onBroadway at age 10, and had a small part in Thomas Edison's 1915 movie, The Heart of a Waif.[8]After a tour of Europe with her mother and stepfather, Dr. Albert E. Austin, whom Ann Boothe married in 1919, she became interested in the women's suffrage movement, and was hired by Alva Belmont to work for the National Woman's Party in Washington, D.C. and Seneca Falls, N.Y.[9]Highly intelligent, ambitious, and blessed with a deceptively fragile blonde beauty, the young Clare Boothe soon abandoned ideological feminism for the safer advancement offered by marrying money. She wed George Tuttle Brokaw, millionaire heir to a New York clothing fortune, on August 10, 1923, at the age of 20. They had one daughter, Ann Clare Brokaw (August 22, 1924 – January 11, 1944). According to Boothe, Brokaw was a hopeless alcoholic, and the marriage ended in divorce in 1929.[10]On November 23, 1935, Clare Boothe married Henry Robinson Luce, the publisher of Time, Lifeand Fortune. She thereafter called herself Clare Boothe Luce, a frequently-misspelled name that was often confused with that of her exact contemporary Claire Luce, a stage and film actress. As a professional writer, Luce continued to use her maiden name.On January 11, 1944, her daughter and only child Ann Clare Brokaw, a senior at Stanford University, was killed in an automobile accident. As a result of this tragedy, Luce exploredpsychotherapy and religion, joining the Roman Catholic Church in 1946.[11] She became an ardent essayist and lecturer in celebration of her faith, and was ultimately honored by being named a Dame of Malta.
Marriage to Henry LuceEdit
The early months of the Luces' marriage—a second for both—were happy. Soon, however, temperamental and sexual incompatibilities inflicted painful strains upon the couple.[12] Henry Luce was by any standards an extremely successful man, but his physical awkwardness, lack of humor, and newsman's discomfort with any conversation that was not strictly factual put him in awe of his beautiful wife's social poise, wit, and fertile imagination.[13] Only at work, where he reigned supreme as publisher and editor-in-chief of Time Inc., was he able to escape nagging feelings of inferiority to her. His exclusively male coterie of editors resented what they believed to be Clare Luce's desire to gain a niche for herself in the boss's empire. Their dread was not unfounded, because her years as managing editor of "Vanity Fair" had left her with an avid interest in journalism (she claimed, with some reason, to have suggested the idea of "Life" magazine to her husband before it was developed internally).[14] Henry Luce himself was generous in encouraging her to write for "Life," but the question of how much coverage she should be accorded in "Time," as she grew more famous, was a perennial problem to him, since he did not want to be accused of nepotism.For her part, Clare Boothe Luce was touched by, but slightly contemptuous of her husband's tendency to put her on a pedestal. It affected his virility, and when, after ten years of marriage, she found out that he was seeing another woman, her reaction was to threaten suicide.[15]Ironically, she herself had several affairs during World War II—notably with General Charles A. Willoughby, Douglas Macarthur's intelligence chief.[16] (The author Roald Dahl, at the time an air attaché at the British Embassy in Washington, boasted to Creekmore Fath that Luce "had screwed [him] from one end of the room to the other for three straight nights." )[17] Sexually, she had always been adventurous, but the art of seduction, which she learned from her equally promiscuous mother, interested her more than the physical act itself. She retained into extreme old age the power to bewitch men in any company, while paying less attention to women.The Luces regularly, but half-heartedly, talked of divorce, yet an exhausted sort of love held them together until Henry's death from a heart attack in 1967. As one of the great "power couples" in American history, they were more or less welded by their mutual interests and complementary, if contrasting characters. They treated each other with unfailing respect in public, never more so than when Henry Luce willingly acted as his wife's consort during her years as Ambassador to Italy. She was never able to convert him to Catholicism—he was the son of a Presbyterian missionary—but he did not question the sincerity of her faith, often attended Mass with her, and defended her whenever she was criticized by his fellow Protestants.In the early years of her widowhood, Clare Boothe Luce retired to the luxurious beach house she and her husband had planned in Honolulu. But boredom with life in what she called "this fur-lined rut"[18] brought her back to Washington D.C. for increasingly long periods, and she made her final home there in 1983.
Writing career
Political career
DeathEdit
Luce died of brain cancer on October 9, 1987, aged 84, at her Watergate apartment inWashington, D.C. She is buried at Mepkin Abbey, South Carolina, a plantation that she and Henry Luce had once owned and given to a community of Trappist monks. She lies in a grave adjoining those of her mother, her daughter, and her husband
Henry Robinson Luce (April 3, 1898 – February 28, 1967), a magazine magnate, was called "the most influential private citizen in the America of his day".[1] He launched and closely supervised a stable of magazines that transformed journalism and the reading habits of upscale Americans.Time summarized and interpreted the week's news; Life was a picture magazine of politics, culture and society that dominated American visual perceptions in the era before television;Fortune explored in depth the economy and the world of business, introducing to executives avant-garde ideas such as Keynesianism; and Sports Illustrated which probed beneath the surface of the game to explore the motivations and strategies of the teams and key players. Add in his radio projects and newsreels, and Luce created the first multimedia corporation. Luce was born in China to missionary parents. Luce envisaged that the United States would achieve world hegemony, and in 1941 he declared the 20th century would be the "American Century".[2]
Life and careerEdit
Luce, known to his friends as "Father Time", was born in Tengchow, China, on April 3, 1898, the son of Elizabeth Middleton and Henry Winters Luce, who was a Presbyterian missionary. He received his education in various Chinese and English boarding schools including the China Inland Mission Chefoo School. He was sent to the U.S. at the age of 15 to attend the Hotchkiss School in Connecticut, followed by Yale College.Luce edited the Hotchkiss Literary Monthly. In 1920, he graduated from Yale College, where he was a member of Alpha Delta Phi and Skull and Bones. At Hotchkiss, he first met Briton Hadden, who would become a lifelong partner. At the time, Hadden served as editor-in-chief of the school newspaper. Luce worked as an assistant managing editor. The two continued to work together at Yale, with Hadden as chairman and Luce as managing editor of The Yale Daily News.Luce, recalling his relationship with Hadden, said, "Somehow, despite the greatest differences in temperaments and even in interests, we had to work together. We were an organization. At the center of our lives — our job, our function — at that point everything we had belonged to each other."After being voted "most brilliant" of his class at Yale, he parted ways with Hadden to embark for a year on historical studies at Oxford University. During this time he worked as a cub reporter for the Chicago Daily News. In December 1921, Luce rejoined Hadden to work at The Baltimore News.
Magazines
FamilyEdit
Luce Memorial Chapel, Tunghai University, Taiwan.Luce had two children — Peter Paul and Henry Luce III — with his first wife, Lila Hotz. He married his second wife, Clare Boothe Luce in 1935, who had an 11-year-old daughter whom he raised as his own. He died in Phoenix, Arizona in 1967. At his death he was said to be worth $100 million in Time Inc. stock. Most of his fortune went to the Henry Luce Foundation. During his life, Luce supported many philanthropies such as Save the Children Federation, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and United Service to China, Inc. He is interred at Mepkin Plantation in South Carolina.He was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 32¢ Great Americans series (1980–2000) postage stamp. Mr. Luce was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1977.According to the Henry Luce Foundation, Henry Luce III died suddenly on September 8, 2005 at 80 years old while visiting his home on Fishers Island, New York, of cardiac arrest. Designed by I. M. Pei, the Luce Memorial Chapel on the campus of Tunghai University in Taiwan was constructed in memoriam of Henry Luce's father.
Ann Clare Brokaw
Ann Clare Brokaw (April 25, 1924 - January 11, 1944, Palo Alto, Calif.) was the only child of Clare Boothe Brokaw (later Clare Boothe Luce) and George Tuttle Brokaw.Her parents were married in August 1923 and divorced on May 20, 1929. Her father agreed to financial support for Clare and her mother, but in 1932 sued to have greater custody of Ann.[1] Six months after her father's death in May 1935, her mother married Henry Luce, publisher of Timeand Life magazines. Her stepfather insisted that Ann and the press refer to Luce as her father.[2]In June 1941, Ann Brokaw (then 17) graduated cum laude from the Foxcroft School in Middleburg, Virginia. She was expected to attend an East Coast women's college such as Smith College or Bryn Mawr College, but instead she elected to attend Stanford University as a way to see the Western United States.[3]Ann Brokaw enrolled in Stanford in fall 1941 and joined the Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority. She majored in political science and philosophy, and was scheduled to graduate summa cum laude in Spring 1944.[2][4]However, on January 11, 1944, Ann Brokaw was a passenger in a car that was struck by another car near the Stanford campus. The 19-year-old senior was ejected from the car and died of fatal head injuries.[5] On her 21st birthday, Ann Brokaw was entitled to inherit more than 25% of the multi-million dollar estate of her grandfather (Isaac Vail Brokaw), but after her death the money went to her half-sister, Frances de Villers Brokaw.[3][6]Her mother was deeply grieved by the death of her only child, and after extensive counseling by Bishop Fulton J. Sheen, in 1946 Clare Boothe Luce converted to the Catholic Church. As a memorial to Ann Brokaw, beginning in 1949 she funded the construction of a Catholic church in Palo Alto for use by the Stanford campus ministry. The new Saint Ann Chapel was dedicated in 1951. It was sold by the diocese in 1998 and in 2003 became a church of the Anglican Province of Christ the King.[2]
......Frances Ford Seymour
Frances Ford SeymourBornApril 14, 1908Brockville, Ontario, CanadaDiedApril 14, 1950 (aged 42)Beacon, New York, USAOccupationSocialiteSpouse(s)George Tuttle Brokaw(m.1931-1935; his death; 1 child)Henry Fonda(m.1936-1950; her death; 2 children)ChildrenFrances de Villers BrokawJane FondaPeter FondaParentsEugene Ford SeymourSophie Mildred BowerFrances Ford Seymour (April 14, 1908 – April 14, 1950) was a Canadian socialite, the second wife of actor Henry Fonda and the mother of actors Jane Fonda and Peter Fonda.
Early lifeEdit
Born in Brockville, Ontario, Canada, she was the daughter of Eugene Ford Seymour and Sophie Mildred (née Bower; July 13, 1886 – April 15, 1974). Among her first cousins was Mary Benjamin Rogers, the first wife of Standard Oil millionaire Henry Huttleston Rogers Jr. Her father, an attorney, was descended from Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset who was brother to Henry VIII's third wife, Jane Seymour.[1]
MarriagesEdit
On January 10, 1931, she married George Tuttle Brokaw, a millionaire lawyer and sportsman, whose previous marriage, to Clare Boothe Luce, had ended in divorce. They had one child, Frances de Villers Brokaw (1931–2008, known as "Pan"), who later married Francesco Corrias, and became a painter. The Corrias had a daughter, gallery owner Pilar Corrias.[2]A year after George Tuttle Brokaw died, she married actor Henry Fonda on September 16, 1936, at Christ Church, New York City. The couple had two children, actress Jane and actor Peter.
DeathEdit
Frances Ford Seymour suffered from mental illness and committed suicide by cutting her throat with a razor on her 42nd birthday while in the Craig House Sanitarium for Insane in Beacon, New York.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_IV
Ivan the Terrible
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Ivan IV)
For other uses, see Ivan the Terrible (disambiguation).
| Ivan the Terrible Иван Грозный | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Ivan the Terrible (State Historical Museum) | |
| Reign | 16 January 1547 – 28 March [O.S. 18 March] 1584 |
| Coronation | 16 January 1547 |
| Predecessor | Himself as Grand Prince |
| Successor | Feodor I |
| Reign | 3 December 1533 – 16 January 1547 |
| Predecessor | Vasili III |
| Successor | Himself as Tsar |
| Spouse | Anastasia Romanovna Maria Temryukovna Marfa Sobakina Anna Koltovskaya Anna Vasilchikova Vasilisa Melentyeva Maria Dolgorukaya Maria Nagaya |
| Issue | |
| Dmitry Ivanovich (born 1552) Ivan Ivanovich Feodor Ivanovich Dmitry Ivanovich (born 1582) | |
| Full name | |
| Ivan Vasilyevich | |
| Dynasty | Rurik |
| Father | Vasili III |
| Mother | Elena Glinskaya |
| Born | 25 August 1530 Kolomenskoye, Russia |
| Died | 28 March [O.S. 18 March] 1584 (aged 53) Moscow, Russia |
| Burial | Cathedral of the Archangel, Moscow |
| Religion | Russian Orthodox |
Ivan IV Vasilyevich (Russian: Ива́н Васи́льевич; 25 August 1530 – 28 March [O.S. 18 March] 1584),[1] known in English as Ivan the Terrible(Russian: 
Ива́н Гро́зный (help·info), Ivan Grozny; lit. Fearsome), was theGrand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and Tsar of All the Russiasfrom 1547 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnicand multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres, approximately 4,046,856 km2 (1,562,500 sq mi).[2] Ivan managed countless changes in the progression from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of All the Russias.
Ива́н Гро́зный (help·info), Ivan Grozny; lit. Fearsome), was theGrand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and Tsar of All the Russiasfrom 1547 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnicand multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres, approximately 4,046,856 km2 (1,562,500 sq mi).[2] Ivan managed countless changes in the progression from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of All the Russias.
Historic sources present disparate accounts of Ivan's complex personality: he was described as intelligent and devout, yet given to rages and prone to episodic outbreaks of mental illness. On one such outburst he killed his groomed and chosen heir Ivan Ivanovich. This left the Tsardom to be passed to Ivan's younger son, the weak and intellectually disabled[3]Feodor Ivanovich. Ivan's legacy is complex: he was an able diplomat, a patron of arts and trade, founder of Russia's first Print Yard, but he is also remembered for his apparent paranoia and arguably harsh treatment of the nobility.
Contents
[hide]Sobriquet[edit]
The English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian wordgrozny in Ivan's nickname, but the modern English usage of terrible, with a pejorative connotation of bad or evil, does not precisely represent the intended meaning. The meaning of grozny is closer to the original usage of terrible—inspiring fear or terror, dangerous (as in Old English in one's danger), formidable or threatening, tough, strict, authoritative. V. Dal defines grozny specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "courageous, magnificent, magisterial, and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience".[4] Other translations were also suggested by modern scholars.[5][6][7]
Early life[edit]
Ivan was the son of Vasili III and his second wife, Elena Glinskaya. When Ivan was three years old, his father died from aboil and inflammation on his leg which developed into blood poisoning. Ivan was proclaimed the Grand Prince of Moscow at his father's request. At first, his mother Elena Glinskaya acted as regent, but she died of what many believe to be assassination by poison[8][9] when Ivan was only eight years old. According to his own letters, Ivan, along with his younger brother Yuri, often felt neglected and offended by the mighty boyars from the Shuisky and Belsky families.
Ivan was crowned with Monomakh's Cap at the Cathedral of the Dormition at age 16 on 16 January 1547. He was the first person to be crowned as "Tsar of All the Russias", hence claiming the ancestry of Kievan Rus. Prior to that, rulers of Muscovy were crowned as Grand Princes, although Ivan III the Great, his grandfather, styled himself "tsar" in his correspondence.
By being crowned Tsar, Ivan was sending a message to the world and to Russia: he was now the one and only supreme ruler of the country, and his will was not to be questioned. "The new title symbolized an assumption of powers equivalent and parallel to those held by former Byzantine Emperor and the Tatar Khan, both known in Russian sources as Tsar. The political effect was to elevate Ivan's position."[10] The new title not only secured the throne, but it also granted Ivan a new dimension of power, one intimately tied to religion. He was now a "divine" leader appointed to enact God's will, "church texts described Old Testament kings as 'Tsars' and Christ as the Heavenly Tsar."[11] The newly appointed title was then passed on from generation to generation, "succeeding Muscovite rulers...benefited from the divine nature of the power of the Russian monarch...crystallized during Ivan's reign."[12]
Domestic policy[edit]
Despite calamities triggered by the Great Fire of 1547, the early part of Ivan's reign was one of peaceful reforms and modernization. Ivan revised the law code, creating the Sudebnik of 1550, founded a standing army (the streltsy),[13]established the Zemsky Sobor (the first Russian parliament of the feudal Estates type), the council of the nobles (known as the Chosen Council), and confirmed the position of the Church with the Council of the Hundred Chapters, which unified the rituals and ecclesiastical regulations of the whole country. He introduced local self-government to rural regions, mainly in the northeast of Russia, populated by the state peasantry.
By Ivan's order in 1553 the Moscow Print Yard was established and the first printing press was introduced to Russia. The 1550s and 1560s saw the printing of several religious books in Russian. The new technology provoked discontent with traditional scribes, which led to the Print Yard being burned in an arson attack and the first Russian printers Ivan Fedorovand Pyotr Mstislavets being forced to flee from Moscow to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Nevertheless, printing of books resumed from 1568 onwards, with Andronik Timofeevich Nevezha and his son Ivan now heading the Print Yard.
Ivan had St. Basil's Cathedral constructed in Moscow to commemorate the seizure of Kazan. Legend has it that he was so impressed with the structure that he had the architect, Postnik Yakovlev, blinded so that he could never design anything as beautiful again. In reality, Postnik Yakovlev went on to design more churches for Ivan and Kazan's Kremlin walls in the early 1560s, as well as the chapel over St. Basil's grave that was added to St. Basil's Cathedral in 1588, several years after Ivan's death. Although more than one architect was associated with this name and constructions, it is believed that the principal architect is one and the same person.[14][15][16]
Other events of this period include the introduction of the first laws restricting the mobility of the peasants, which would eventually lead to serfdom.
Oprichnina[edit]
Main article: Oprichnina
The 1560s brought hardships to Russia that led to dramatic change of Ivan's policies. Russia was devastated by a combination of drought and famine,Polish-Lithuanian raids, Tatar invasions and the sea-trading blockade carried out by the Swedes, Poles and the Hanseatic League. His first wife, Anastasia Romanovna, died in 1560, and her death was suspected to be a poisoning. This personal tragedy deeply hurt Ivan and is thought to have affected his personality, if not his mental health. At the same time, one of Ivan's advisors, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, defected to the Lithuanians, took command of the Lithuanian troops and devastated the Russian region of Velikiye Luki. The series of treasons made Ivan paranoically suspicious of nobility.
On December 3, 1564, Ivan departed Moscow for Aleksandrova Sloboda. From there he sent two letters in which he announced his abdication because of the alleged embezzlement and treason of the aristocracy and clergy. The boyar court was unable to rule in Ivan's absence and feared the wrath of the Muscovite citizenry. A boyar envoy departed for Aleksandrova Sloboda to beg Ivan to return to the throne.[17] Ivan agreed to return on condition of being granted absolute power. He demanded that he should be able to execute and confiscate the estates of traitors without interference from the boyar council or church. Upon this, Ivan decreed the creation of the oprichnina.[18]
The oprichnina consisted of a separate territory within the borders of Russia, mostly in the territory of the former Novgorod Republic in the north. Ivan held exclusive power over the oprichnina territory. The Boyar Council ruled the zemshchina ('land'), the second division of the state. Ivan also recruited a personal guard known as the oprichniki. Originally it was a thousand strong.[19]The oprichniki were headed by Malyuta Skuratov. The oprichniki enjoyed social and economic privileges under the oprichnina. They owed their allegiance and status to Ivan, not to heredity or local bonds.[20]
The first wave of persecutions targeted primarily the princely clans of Russia, notably the influential families of Suzdal’. Ivan executed, exiled, or forcibly tonsured prominent members of the boyar clans on questionable accusations of conspiracy. Among those executed were the Metropolitan Philip and the prominent warlord Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky. In 1566 Ivan extended the oprichnina to eight central districts. Of the 12,000 nobles there, 570 became oprichniks, the rest were expelled.[21]
Under the new political system, the Oprichniki were given large estates, but unlike the previous landlords, could not be held accountable for their actions. These men, "took virtually all the peasants possessed, forcing them to pay 'in one year as much as [they] used to pay in ten.'"[22] This degree of oppression resulted in increasing cases of peasants fleeing which in turn led to a drop in the overall production. The price of grain increased by a factor of ten.
Sack of Novgorod[edit]
Main article: Massacre of Novgorod
Conditions under Oprichnina were worsened by the 1570 epidemics of plague that killed 10,000 people in Novgorod. In Moscow it killed 600–1000 daily.[23] During the grim conditions of the epidemics, famine and ongoing Livonian war, Ivan grew suspicious that noblemen of the wealthy city of Novgorod were planning to defect, placing the city itself into the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1570 Ivan ordered the Oprichniki to raid the city. The Oprichniki burned and pillaged Novgorod and the surrounding villages, and the city was never to regain its former prominence.[24]
Casualty figures vary greatly in different sources. The First Pskov Chronicle estimates the number of victims at 60,000.[24][25][26][26] Yet the official death toll named 1,500 of Novgorod's big people (nobility) and mentioned only about the same number of smaller people. Many modern researchers estimate the number of victims to range from 2000–3000 (after the famine and epidemics of 1560s the population of Novgorod most likely did not exceed 10,000–20,000).[27] Many survivors were deported elsewhere.
Oprichnina did not live long after the sack of Novgorod. During the 1571–1572 Russo-Crimean war, oprichniks failed to prove themselves worthy against a regular army. In 1572, Ivan abolished the Oprichnina and disbanded his oprichniks.
Foreign policy[edit]
Diplomacy and trade[edit]
In 1547 Hans Schlitte, the agent of Ivan, recruited craftsmen in Germany for work in Russia. However all these craftsmen were arrested in Lübeck at the request of Poland and Livonia. The German merchant companies ignored the new port built by Ivan on the river Narva in 1550 and continued to deliver goods in the Baltic ports owned by Livonia. Russia remained isolated from sea trade.
Ivan established very close ties with England. Russo-English relations can be traced to 1553, when Richard Chancellor sailed to the White Sea and continued overland to Moscow. Upon his return to England in 1555, theMuscovy Company was formed by himself, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Hugh Willoughby, and several London merchants. Ivan opened up the White Sea and the port of Arkhangelsk to the Company and granted the Company privilege of trading throughout his reign without paying the standard customs fees.[28]Muscovy Company retained the monopoly in Russo-English trade until 1698.
With the use of English merchants, Ivan engaged in a long correspondence with Queen Elizabeth. While the queen focused on commerce, Ivan was more interested in a military alliance. During his troubled relations with the boyars, the tsar even asked her for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised.
Ivan IV corresponded with Orthodox leaders overseas as well. In response to a letter of Patriarch Joachim of Alexandriaasking the Tsar for financial assistance for the Monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai, which had suffered from the Turks, Ivan IV sent in 1558 a delegation to Egypt led by archdeacon Gennady, who, however, died in Constantinople before he could reach Egypt. From then on the embassy was headed by Smolensk merchant Vasily Poznyakov. Poznyakov's delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo and Sinai, brought the patriarch a fur coat and an icon sent by the Tsar and left an interesting account of its 2.5 years of travels.[29]
Conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan[edit]
Main article: Siege of Kazan (1552)
While Ivan IV was a minor, armies of the Kazan Khanate repeatedly raided the northeast of Russia,[30] In the 1530s the Crimean khan formed an offensive alliance with Safa Giray of Kazan, his relative. When Safa Giray invaded Muscovy in December 1540, the Russians used Qasim Tatars to contain him. After his advance was stalled near Murom, Safa Giray was forced to withdraw to his own borders.
These reverses undermined Safa Giray's authority in Kazan. A pro-Russian party, represented by Shahgali, gained enough popular support to make several attempts to take over the Kazan throne. In 1545 Ivan IV mounted an expedition to the Volga River to show his support for pro-Russian factions.
In 1551 the tsar sent his envoy to the Nogai Horde and they promised to maintain neutrality during the impending war. The Ar begs and Udmurtssubmitted to Russian authority as well. In 1551 the wooden fort of Sviyazhskwas transported down the Volga from Uglich all the way to Kazan. It was used as the Russian place d'armes during the decisive campaign of 1552.
On 16 June 1552 Ivan IV led a 150,000-strong Russian army towards Kazan. The last siege of the Tatar capital was commenced on 30 August. Under the supervision of Prince Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky, the Russians used ram weapons, a battery-tower, mines, and 150 cannons. The Russians also had the advantage of efficient military engineers. The city's water supply was blocked and the walls were breached. Kazan finally fell on 2 October, its fortifications were razed, and much of the population massacred. About 60,000 – 100,000 Russian prisoners and slaves were released. The Tsar celebrated his victory over Kazan by building several churches with oriental features, most famouslySaint Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow.
Ivan IV before the seizure of Kazan encouraged his army by the examples of Georgian Queen Tamar's battles[31] by describing her as: "The most wise Queen of Iberia, endowed with the intelligence and courage of a man".[32]
The fall of Kazan had as its primary effect the outright annexation of the Middle Volga. The Bashkirs accepted Ivan IV's authority two years later. In 1556 Ivan annexed the Astrakhan Khanate and destroyed the largest slave market on the river Volga. These conquests complicated the migration of the aggressive nomadic hordes from Asia to Europe through Volga. As a result of the Kazan campaigns, Muscovy was transformed into the multinational and multi-faith state of Russia.
Russo-Turkish war[edit]
Main article: Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)
In 1556, the khanate was conquered by Ivan the Terrible, who had a new fortress built on a steep hill overlooking the Volga. In 1568 the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, who was the real power in the administration of the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim, initiated the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival. The results presaged the many disasters to come. A plan to unite the Volga and Don by a canal was detailed in Constantinople and in the summer of 1569 a large force under Kasim Paşa of 1,500 Janissaries, 2000 Spakhs, and few thousand Azaps, and Akıncıs, were sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov.
Early in 1570, the ambassadors of Ivan IV of Russia concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar.
Livonian war[edit]
Main article: Livonian War
In an attempt to gain access to Baltic sea and its major trade routes, Ivan launched an ultimately unsuccessful 24 years Livonian war of seaward expansion to the west and finding himself fighting the Swedes, Lithuanians, Poles and theLivonian Teutonic Knights.
![[icon]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} | This section requires expansion.(January 2012) |
Having rejected peace proposals from his enemies, Ivan IV found himself in a difficult position by 1579. The displaced refugees fleeing the war compounded the effects of the simultaneous drought, and exacerbated war engenderedepidemics, causing much loss of life.
Altogether the prolonged war had nearly destroyed the economy, Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The Grand Principality of Lithuania had united with The Kingdom of Poland and acquired an energetic leader, Stefan Batory, who was supported by Russia's southern enemy, theOttoman Empire (1576). Ivan's realm was now being squeezed by two of the great powers of the day.
After negotiations with Ivan failed, Batory launched a series of offensivesagainst Muscovy in the campaign seasons of 1579–1581, trying to cut TheKingdom of Livonia from Muscovite territories. During his first offensive in 1579, he retook Polotsk with 22,000 men. During the second, in 1580, he took Velikie Luki with a 29,000-strong force. Finally, he began the Siege of Pskov in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army. Narva in Estonia was reconquered by Sweden in 1581.
Unlike Sweden and Poland, Denmark under Frederick II had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy. He came to an agreement with John III of Sweden, in 1580, transferring the Danish titles of Livonia to him. Muscovy recognized Polish-Lithuanian control of Livonia only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland, brother of Fredrick II and former ally of Ivan, died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The Duchy of Courland and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island of Saaremaa, Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585.
Crimean raids[edit]
Main article: Russo-Crimean Wars
In late years of Ivan's reign southern borders of Muscovy were disturbed by Crimean Tatars. Khan Devlet I Giray of Crimearepeatedly raided the Moscow region. In 1571, the 40,000-strong Crimean and Turkish army launched a large-scale raid. Due to ongoing Livonian war, Moscow's garrison was as small as 6,000, and could not even delay the Tatar approach. Unresisted, Devlet devastated unprotected towns and villages around Moscow and set Moscow on fire. Historians estimate the number of casualties of the fire from 10,000 to as many 80,000 people.
To buy peace from Devlet Giray, Ivan was forced to relinquish his rights on Astrakhan in favor of Crimean Khanate (although this proposed transfer was only a diplomatic maneuver and was never actually complete). This defeat angered Ivan. Upon his orders, between 1571 and 1572 preparations were made. In addition to Zasechnaya cherta, innovative fortifications were set beyond the river Oka that defined the border.
Next year Devlet launched another raid on Moscow, now with 120,000-strong[33] horde, equipped with cannons and reinforced by Turkish janissaries. On 26 July 1572 the horde crossed the Oka River near Serpukhov, destroyed the Russian vanguard of 200 noblemen and advanced towards Moscow.
The Russian army, led by Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, was half the size, estimated at between 60,000–70,000 men, yet it was an experienced streltsi army, equipped with modern firearms and gulyay-gorods. On 30 July the armies clashed near the Lopasnya River in what will be known as the Battle of Molodi, that continued for more than a week. The outcome was decisive Russian victory. The Crimean horde was defeated so thoroughly that both the Ottoman Sultan and the Crimean khan, his vassal, had to give up their ambitious plans of northward expansion into Russia.
Conquest of Siberia[edit]
Main article: Russian conquest of Siberia
During Ivan's reign, Russia started a large-scale exploration and colonization of Siberia. In 1555, shortly after the conquest of Kazan, Siberian khan Yadegar and Nogai khan Ismail pledged their allegiance to Ivan, in hope that he would help them against their opponents. However, Yadegar failed to gather the full sum of tribute he proposed to the tsar, so Ivan did nothing to save his inefficient vassal. in 1563 Yadegar was overthrown and killed by khan Kuchum, who denied any tribute to Moscow.
In 1558 Ivan gave the Stroganov merchant family patent for colonizing "the abundant region along the Kama River", and in 1574 lands over the Ural Mountains along the rivers Tura and Tobol. They also received permission to build forts along the Ob and Irtysh rivers. Around 1577, the Stroganovs hired the Cossack leader Yermak Timofeyevich to protect their lands from attacks of the Siberian Khan Kuchum.
In 1580 Yermak started his conquest of Siberia. With some 540 Cossacks he started to penetrate territories that were tributary to Kuchum. Yermak pressured and persuaded the various family-based tribes to change their loyalties and become tributaries of Russia. Some agreed voluntarily, under better terms than with Kuchum, other were forced. He also established distant forts in the newly conquered lands. The campaign was successful, and cossacks managed to defeat the Siberian army in the Battle of Chuvash Cape, but Yermak was still in need for reinforcements. He sent an envoy to Ivan the Terrible, with a message that proclaimed Yermak-conquered Siberia a part of Russia, to the dismay of the Stroganovs, who planned to keep Siberia for themselves. Ivan agreed to reinforce the cossacks with his streltsi. Yermak's conquest expanded Ivan's empire to the east and allowed him to style himself "Tsar of Siberia" in the tsar's very last years.
Personal life[edit]
| This section requires expansion.(January 2012) |
Marriages and children[edit]
- Anastasia Romanovna:
- Tsarevna Anna Ivanovna (10 August 1548 – 20 July 1550)
- Tsarevna Maria Ivanovna (17 March 1551 – young)
- Tsarevich Dmitri Ivanovich (October 1552 – 26 June 1553)
- Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich (28 March 1554 – 19 November 1581)
- Tsarevna Eudoxia Ivanovna (26 February 1556 – June 1558)
- Tsar Feodor I of Russia (31 May 1557 – 6 January 1598)
- Maria Temryukovna:
- Tsarevich Vasili Ivanovich (21 March 1563 – 3 May 1563)
- Marfa Sobakina
- Anna Koltovskaya
- Anna Vasilchikova
- Vasilisa Melentyeva
- Maria Dolgorukaya
- Maria Nagaya:
- Tsarevich Dmitri Ivanovich (19 October 1582 – 15 May 1591)
In 1581 Ivan beat his pregnant daughter-in-law for wearing immodest clothing, and this may have caused a miscarriage. His oldest son, also named Ivan, upon learning of this, engaged in a heated argument with his father, resulting in Ivan striking his son in the head with his pointed staff, causing his son's death. This event is depicted in the famous painting byIlya Repin, Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan on Friday, 16 November 1581 better known as Ivan the Terrible killing his son.http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysanthemum
