Even in Ancient Chinese mention giraffe sightings upon Chinese voyage to Somalia.
Somalia as well as Turkey and Uzebekistan-Russian (Siberian eskimo-Innuits crossing over from Russian territory of Alaska of North American continent Canadian Inuits as far as Quebec Arctic Innuits of Polar Bears) have Islamic - Animic Shaman of Innuits roots.
The Manchu-Jurechen Koreans once ruled over Vietnam before French and British took Vietnam and other Manchu territories of southern China for opium/silk hoarding commerce greed typical of 'jews using usury commerce to take over the territory they occupy without ever leaving wronly encroachments'.
Even in modern, 2013,Russian-Italy Catholic-Christianity ranks first and Islam ranks second dominant religion in the world.
The ancient feud of power and territorial dispute between "Russian Orthodox Catholic-Christians influencing much of Caucasian Europe" and "nonjew killing human sacrificial rituals/homosexuality/superiority practice of slavement/incest cult of caucasian jews" led to repeated "shock doctrine" conflicts financially funded by jews.
With each civil war, revolts, ww1-ww2-genocidal 1945-1953 conflicts, military
Combat throughout history; all murdering crimes result in Jew gain of wealth.
1910-1953 destruction and genocide of Manchu-Korea destroyed Chinese and Korean heritage, wealth, its desfendents, and its territories. As a result, jews who have been occupying non-resistant Kobe,Japan became central Asian power that belonged to Manchu-China and its Korean allies.
Jews persecuted for jew-ritual-gentile-killings as well as usury deceptions made them outcasts of Russia as well as European territories. Jews hiding since 1860s in Kobe, Jap took control of Japs.
Jews controlling financially dependent Japs targetted Anti-jew Russia as well as Islam influenced China-Manchu Korean territories.
With the facade of Russia-Soviet labelling responsible for all evilness; Jew evilness carried out without public spotlight. For example, Shanghai Chinese fighting the Russian Jews in China responsible for increasing prostitution crimes as well as French-American-British-European exploitations of Chinese and Koreans led to formation of Chinese Communism to overthrow foreigners. Such communism differs from Soviet-Ashkenazi-Hitler-nazism that zionist jews initiated to overthrow jew oppressors in Russia and Europe. Yet, jews labelled and blindly controlled the media with generic 'fight communism' that was actually created by jews!
Same jews coined "paganism" to generalize even the peaceful Eskimo-Innuits practicing Shamanism to ward off the very devastating-parasitic-jew-cults that encroach and enslave the natives of the territory unlawfully taken by jews! Killers-cults-jews should be coined pagans instead!
Since judaism hides thru its diaspora across the globe nondistinguishable by race or appearance; fighting a hiding oppressor deceitfully masked by armies of bribed scapegoats are the ways of the criminal jews.
Ottoman Empire collapsed by WW1; giving opportunity for jews to establish ISRAEL by controlling China-Korea-Russia-Jap-India's commerce.Segmenting the Ottoman Empire weakened its territories. Increased civil disputes among segmented Ottoman Empire too distracted them from combatting foreign invasion of jews; Author Naomi Klein's theory of 'Shock Doctrine' best describes the jew tactics.
Sikilar to the Ottoman Empire; jews gained control over America by assasinating Abe Lincoln who sought to unite the North and South. Even among freemason jews display good jew struggling to correct sins of evil jews.
The devastating fate of segmented African Continent as well as segregated Chinese territories since the fall of Manchu-Korea in 1910 are examples " assasinated Abraham
Lincoln" prevented by uniting Northern and Southern America by abolishing slavery! Seizing supriority inequality jew cult; practicing religious freedom that jews used as a front to gain American independence from Britain was short lived because jews persecuted nonjews in America more than media-literature spotlight of jews being oppressed ( Austrian Hitler Nazis killed jews that did not side with zionist jews as well as nonjews and those aged-disabled whom jews listed as unfit! Jews had disregarded the consequential dna defects resulting from jew practice of incest-homosexual prostitution increasing std' hiv' aids!)
American constitution mirrors Ten Commandments that jews use as mere 'front' that jews themselves (woody allen,hollywood moguls, Rotschild world bank descendent zionist jews)
do not follow.
Every neighborhood has segregated rich vs poverty-stricken areas. Jews take the rich neighborhood residence and enslave the poor. Such is a deceitful practice of modern day slavery of jews. Donations of jews backfire by purchasing reciepients to remain loyal to the jews making donations.
Throughout history, the Catholic-Christians recruited the poor to resist bribery of the jews.
Throughout history; Jews maintained wealth and slaved the purchasable poor.
Throughout history, the Russian nonjews feud with Jews are repeated.
Islams, Buddhists, Shamans of Eskimo-Innuits, and variius religious beliefs diagreeing Jew cult ( Gypsies-Boheminians who descended from ancestors that once persecuted Jews cannot find establishments due to jew influences in social structure; Initially, Gypsies and Bohemians had good cause in their wandering escapes; however, generations of its descendents lost track of initial root reasons and evolved into ruined lifestyles of poverty and crime).
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire
Korean-Manchu diaspora
As part of its wartime strategy during the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan had advanced through Korea, engaging Chinese troops at Asan near Seoul and then Pyongyang in September 1894, winning decisive victories on both occasions. Following the victory at Pyongyang the Japanese Second Army under Marshal Oyama Iwao (1842-1916) moved northward towards Manchuria, the plan being to seize Port Arthur, headquarters to China's Beiyang Fleet and a highly fortified city that dominated the sea passage from Korea to northeast China. In September the Japanese navy heavily damaged the Beiyang Fleet at the Battle of the Yalu River, though the Chinese troopships were successful in landing their troops not far from the Sino-Korean border. With the Beiyang Fleet eliminated, the Japanese navy began a siege of Port Arthur while the Japanese Second Army advanced on the city through Manchuria and the Japanese First Army crossed the Yalu River to form another advance by land. After a series of battles on the Liaodong Peninsula the First Division of the Second Army led by General Yamaji drew up around Port Arthur in late November. On November 18, 1894 the Japanese movement down the peninsula was temporarily frustrated and returned to find that their abandoned wounded troops were horribly mutilated with hands and feet cut off.[4] Others had been burned alive.[5] The city was evacuated with residents fleeing westward by land or sea into China. The Chinese had mutilated several Japanese bodies and displayed them at the entrance of the city, infuriating the Japanese. After only token resistance the city fell to Japanese troops late on the morning of November 21. What followed was a massacre of the remaining inhabitants of Port Arthur by the Japanese troops,[6] though the scale and nature of the killing continues to be debated.[7]
김제동 and 김구 look alike
Kim Gu (Hangul:김구, 1876–1949assasinated )
Kim Gu, was on of the founders of the Republic of Korea, a South Korean politician, educator, the sixth and later the last president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
......
An Jung-geunBorn: September 2, 1879, Haeju, North KoreaDied: March 26, 1910, Lüshunkou District, China; also known as Port Arthur of China- locale of massive genocide of Chinese-Manchu-Koreans by Jap Militia!
The Port Arthur massacre occurred during the First Sino-Japanese War from 21 November 1894 for two or three days, when advanced elements of the First Division of the Japanese Second Army under command of General Yamaji Motoharu (1841–1897) killed somewhere between 1,000 to 20,000 Chinese servicemen and civilians, leaving only 36 to bury bodies,[1] in the Chinese coastal city of Port Arthur (now Lüshunkou). The higher estimates are suspect, however, since a contemporary account of the war estimated Port Arthur's total population at 6,000 (13,000 including garrison troops).[2] Later accounts estimate that 18,000 from each side engaged in the conflict with Chinese dead numbering 1,500.[3]
(28) Ahn Jung-geun: patriot, assassin, hero
This calligraphy with the stamp of a hand was known to be done by Ahn Jung-geun himself sometime in February 1910 in his prison cell. He was executed one month later. / Korea Times fileBy Andrew SalmonIn an exchange between two characters in a Jack Higgins World War II novel, a Frenchman tells an Englishman, “You are fortunate that your country has not been occupied. It is not an experience I recommend.”Indeed. While millions more Koreans were killed during the 1950-53 Korean War than during the 1910-1945 colonial period, it is the latter experience that Koreans consider the darkest period of their modern history. For this was a period in which there was, bar the brief flame of the March 1st movement of 1919, no real national resistance; a period in which collaboration with the foreign occupier was all too common. In short: A national humiliation.Such humiliation is not, of course, unique to Korea. France, for example, has forged a legend of the resistance of the “Maquis” against Nazism ― but also suffered extraordinary agonies in the years since 1945 as it grappled with the reality that collaboration was common under the jackboot. Yet France was only occupied by Hitler’s Germany for five years. Korea, by way of contrast, suffered 30 years under the Japanese yoke ― 35 if you count the first five years of creeping Japanese control prior to outright annexation.The colonial period and its painful preamble was a time in which heroes were in short supply, at least for post-1945 South Koreans. While Kim Il-sung and bands of communist guerillas had, in fact, battled the Japanese in the wilds of Manchuria and North Korea, this was less true of their non-communist, nationalist ilk.Yet there is one shining hero in the modern national pantheon, a man whose actions during the dark era of Japanese hegemony have granted him almost saintly status in today’s South Korea. He is memorialized in an impressive structure perched above downtown Seoul in ― appropriately enough ― the location of a former Japanese Shinto shrine. He is also the subject of books and films and even a musical.His name? Ahn Jung-geun.Nationalist, Catholic, modernist Ahn was born in Haeju, northern Korea, in 1879. A sleepy, uncertain and unprepared Korea was being forcibly prized out of her centuries-long seclusion for a tri-power game was underway between China, Russia and a rising Japan to control the strategic peninsula. As he grew up Ahn worked in the coal business, married and became a Christian. He was confirmed in the Catholic Church at age 16, taking the baptismal name Thomas from a French priest.While it may not today be seen as a progressive force, the Catholic Church provided both a haven and possibilities for modern-minded Koreans of the day: It was one route to Western learning and Ahn would, prior to his most famous act, be active in education in both Korea and in the expatriate Korean communities in the Russian Far East, founding two schools. This is not to say he looked down upon traditional teachings. A skilled calligrapher, he was known for the saying, “Unless one reads every day, thorns grow in one’s mouth.”While Ahn was growing up and being shaped by his environment, both China and Russia were falling before the arms of a vigorous new Asian power, one that had, in one of the most startling transformations in history, moved from feudal society to modern powerhouse in the space of a generation ― the Meiji Restoration.It is perhaps the greatest irony of Ahn’s life that he would find much to praise in the modernized Japan and even its emperor, but would struggle against the nation itself as it closed its claws around Korea, extinguishing (under the guise of modernizing) Korea’s institutions one by one and restricting her policy freedoms.This was both the fire in which modern Korean nationalism was forged and the blaze which lighted Ahn’s path to immortality.He would not struggle alone. Various members of his family ― brother, cousins and nephews ― would undertake anti-Japanese acts. He also met with anti-Japanese figures who subsequently gained high profiles ― notably Kim Ku, who would later recall Ahn’s personal charisma.In a day when cameras were rare, Ahn was photographed. He appears youthful and good looking, dressed in a contemporary Western style with a wispy mustache. But part of his ring finger is missing ― he had mutilated it as a pledge to fight Japan ― and he has the dreaming eyes commonly seen in revolutionaries.It is worth pointing out that while Ahn is most commonly depicted as an “independence fighter” Korea was ― during his short lifetime ― de jure independent. Certainly, Japan was taking a very strong (and often violent) hand in the peninsula’s affairs, having made it a protectorate in 1905, but it would not actually annex the country until 22nd August, 1910 ― well after Ahn’s death on March 26.And Ahn’s death is defining, for the act for which he earned fame (and infamy) would be his last.Assassination and executionOn Oct. 26, 1909, Japan’s most noted statesmen, Maquis Ito Hirobumi, arrived at the rail station in Harbin, Manchuria for meetings with Russian officials.One of the first Japanese to study in the West, Ito was a brilliant reformer, administrator and former prime minister. He had been one of the early advocates of Japanese influence over Korea, and a former resident general following the establishment of a protectorate in 1905. Yet by 1909, Ito, who opposed the outright annexation of the peninsula, was a moderate, on the defensive against more aggressive factions in the Japanese military.For Ahn, however Ito was a symbol of Japan’s creeping control. As the Japanese delegation inspected a Russian honor guard on the platform, Ahn, dressed in civilian clothes, produced an automatic pistol and opened fire. Four members of the Japanese delegation were hit as Ahn rapid-fired. Ito went down with three bullets in his torso.Ahn made no apparent attempt to escape. He was seized by Russian troops while his target lay mortally on the platform, bleeding his life out.Japanese reports described the assassin as a “fanatic” a “reckless miscreant” and “a bloodthirsty heinous assassin.” Though Ito had been passing out of favor and influence as new, more aggressive forces and personalities moved to the forefront of policymaking, Japan recognized that one of their great men had passed.At the height of the colonial era, most foreign press sided with Tokyo. Ito was cited as a “friend of Korea” a benign modernizer who was compared to the British administrators of colonial India. Little ink was spilled on the aggressive Japanese strategy toward Korea (nor, for that matter, on the exploitative nature of Britain’s colonial mission in India). Such was the nature of the times.Ahn, meanwhile, had been transferred from Russian to Japanese custody. While his most famous deed was the shooting, in prison he would lay another claim on posterity, as, between court appearances, he wrote up his ideas for a pan-Asian resistance to Western encroachment, “On Peace in East Asia.” This unfinished document is striking (given Ahn’s recent act) in that it called for a union between China, Korea and Japan to resist encroaching Western powers.It was an idealistic, forward-looking vision and was in sync with that of earlier Japanese thinkers such as Okakura Kakuzo, who had promoted similar ideas. But it was hardly a realistic one, given the policy mismatches and power competition between the three states.Indeed, Asia would, two decades after Ahn’s death, plunge into the most destructive war in its long and bloody history as Japan ― in what many Japanese stridently continue to claim today was a legitimate response to Western aggression ― attempted to unite Asia under its own banner, the so-called “Greater East Asian Co-prosperity Sphere.”Today, while Southeast Asia has managed to forge a unified community (ASEAN) the big powers and industrial players of Northeast Asia ― Japan and China, with Korea sandwiched in the middle ― are enjoying increasing economic linkages. Political integration looks as far off as ever.Ahn also laid out his 15 reasons for assassinating Ito. They make interesting reading, as a number of them ― for example, accusing Ito of being behind the assassination of Korea’s Queen Myeongseong, and of misleading Emperor Meiji on Korean matters ― were far off the mark. In jail, Ahn thought that most Japanese shared his hatred of the statesman, but this seems to be based largely on conversations he had with Japanese prisoners ― hardly a representative sampling of the populace.Still, if Ahn’s naivety can be criticized, the reports we have of his behavior in jail ― including those of at least one Japanese guard - suggest that he was a prisoner of unusual charisma and dignity. Ahn identified himself as a general in the Korean army and argued for prisoner of war status.It was not granted. He was executed on March 26, 1910.LegacyClearly, Ahn’s actions had no effect on the Japanese takeover of Korea: If anything, the nation suffered a more brutal annexation than would likely have been the case if Ito had remained alive and active. In this sense, Ahn can hardly be seen as an influencer of events. It is as an icon that his legacy lives on.In the decades since his death, he has been elevated by both Koreas into a colossal figure of shining virtue, unparalleled courage and groundbreaking intellect. There are, however, some issues in recent Korean portrayals of Ahn. As regards to his philosophies, he is simultaneously lauded as both a pan-Asianist and a nationalist ― which are contradictory stances. Then there are the problematic issues of his actual act. South Korean writers frequently portray him as someone who strove for peace - yet his defining act was the assassination of a moderate.Of course, a hero must have a monster to fight. Ito was hardly that ― though the Japan he served would soon grow into one ― but in today’s Korea, Ahn’s victim has been painted as a villain of almost satanic hue. This is due to some very slanted ― even disingenuous ― historical writings and the influence of popular culture.Take a prize-winning essay on Ahn ― judged, moreover, by a prominent government-funded history association ― that was entered in a competition that took place as part of Ahn’s centennial commemorations. It is riddled with historical howlers, stating, among other things, that the killing of Ito “played an important role in the fall of Japan” ― i.e. the defeat of Japan by the Allies in 1945. The recent South Korean musical “Hero” even has Ito suggesting human experimentation ― a reference to the hideous biological warfare activities of the Imperial Japanese Army’s Unit 731, a unit that would not be active until 30 years after Ito was shot.Still, neither widespread Korean slandering of Ito, nor unquestioning promotion of Ahn as a figure of almost limitless virtue, should detract from the real, unvarnished qualities of this tragic young man.Japanese authorities seem to have sensed them. Despite expeditions mandated by the Lee Myung-bak administration to discover and recover Ahn’s remains from China on the 100th anniversary of his death, they have never been found. According to Japanese records, his grave was purposely not made public. This may well indicate that the Japanese authorities realized how representative Ahn would become for Koreans who yearned for the right to control their own national destiny.Ahn’s most famed tangible legacy today is his widely admired calligraphy. Given that he was a writer himself, it might make sense to examine Ahn’s actions in the light of the religious tradition which he converted to.Perhaps the most widely cited paean in the English language to selfless heroism originates in the gospel of St John: “Greater love hath no man than this, that he lay down his life for his friends.”If we remove the word “friends” and replace it with “nation” then Ahn Jung-geun is, indeed, a her.
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http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Balhae
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_Y_(mtDNA)
| Population | Frequency | Count | Source | Subtypes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nivkh (northern Sakhalin) | 0.661 | 56 | Starikovskaya 2005 | Y1=37 |
| Koryak | 0.097 | 155 | Starikovskaya 2005 | Y=15 |
| Evenk (Buryatia) | 0.089 | 45 | Derenko 2007 | Y=4 |
| Bukharan Arab (Uzbekistan/Kyrgyzstan) | 0.050 | 20 | Comas 2004 | Y=1 |
| Kazakh (Uzbekistan/Kyrgyzstan) | 0.050 | 20 | Comas 2004 | Y=1 |
| Tajik (Uzbekistan/Kyrgyzstan) | 0.050 | 20 | Comas 2004 | Y=1 |
| Orok (Sakhalin) | 0.049 | 61 | Bermisheva 2005 | Y=3 |
| Even (Eveno-Bytantaysky & Momsky) | 0.048 | 105 | Fedorova 2013 | Y1a=5 |
| Korean (South Korea) | 0.015 | 203 | Umetsu 2005 | Y=3 |
| Korean (South Korea) | 0.011 | 185 | Jin 2009 | Y1=1, Y2=1 |
| Hmong (Jishou, Hunan) | 0.010 | 103 | Wen 2005 | Y=1 |
| Korean (South Korea) | 0.010 | 103 | Derenko 2007 | Y=1 |
| Japanese (Hokkaidō) | 0.005 | 217 | Asari 2007 | Y=1 |
| Bashkir (Beloretsky, Sterlibashevsky, Ilishevsky, & Perm Oblast) | 0.005 | 221 | Bermisheva 2002 | Y=1 |
| Korean (South Korea) | 0.004 | 261 | Kim 2008 | Y=1 |
| Han (southern California) | 0.003 | 390 | Ji 2012 | Y=1 |
| Han (Taiwan) | 0.001 | 1117 | Ji 2012 | Y=1 |
| Korean | 0.029 | 346 | Maruyama 2003 | Y=10 |
| Evenk (Krasnoyarsk) | 0.027 | 73 | Derenko 2007 | Y=2 |
| Korean (northern China) | 0.000 | 51 | Jin 2009 | - |
| Evenk (Krasnoyarsk) | 0.027 | 73 | Derenko 2007 | Y=2 |
| Yakut (Vilyuy River basin) | 0.027 | 111 | Fedorova 2013 | Y1a=3 |
| Tajik (Tajikistan) | 0.023 | 44 | Derenko 2007 | Y=1 |
| Daur (Evenk Autonomous Banner) | 0.022 | 45 | Kong 2003 | Y1=1 |
| Han (Xinjiang) | 0.021 | 47 | Yao 2004 | Y1=1 |
| Mongolian (Ulaanbaatar) | 0.021 | 47 | Jin 2009 | Y1=1 |
| Kalmyk (Kalmykia) | 0.018 | 110 | Derenko 2007 | Y=2 |
| Kazakh (Kazakhstan) | 0.018 | 55 | Yao 2004 | Y1=1 |
Balhae
| Balhae | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 The territory of Balhae | |||||||||
| Chinese name | |||||||||
| Traditional Chinese: | 振, then 渤海 | ||||||||
| Simplified Chinese: | 振, then 渤海 | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Korean name | |||||||||
| Hangul: | 진, then 발해 | ||||||||
| Hanja: | 振, then 渤海 | ||||||||
| |||||||||
Balhae (698 - 926) (Bohai in Chinese) existed as an ancient kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-young, a former Goguryeo general of possible Mohe ethnicity, established Jin (振, Chinese, Zhen), later called Balhae, by uniting various Mohe and Goguryeo elements. Balhae emerged as the successor state to Goguryeo.[1] Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria(Northeast China) and Primorsky Krai, and the northern part of the Korean peninsula. The Khitans defeated Balhae in 926, becoming mostly a part of the Liao Dynasty while Goryeo absorbed southern parts.
Balhae stands in the direct line of the mythical foundation of Korea in Dangun (2333 B.C.E.) and legendary foundation in Gija (1222 B.C.E.). Controversy boils between Chinese, North Korean, and South Korean archaeologists and anthropologists over the origin of the northern kingdoms, including Balhae. Many Chinese scholars claim Balhae and previous kingdoms as provinces of China whereas many Korean scholars claim indigenous roots for the northern Korean people. The argument has political overtones as a way to lay claim to the territory of former Gojoseon, Goguryeo, and Balhae. Regardless, the influence of China upon northern Koreans has been pronounced.
Contents[hide] |
History
Founding
The earliest extant recorded mention of Balhae come from the Book of Tang, compiled between 941 to 945. Southern Manchuria(Northeast China) and northern Korea existed previously as the territory of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo fell to the allied forces of Silla and the Tang Dynasty in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the Korean Peninsula south of the Taedong River and became Unified Silla. The "New Book of Tang" recorded that the founder of Balhae, Dae Joyeong (大祚榮) had served as a Goguryeo general of Sumo Mohe stock[2]. According to the "Book of Tang," Dae Joyeong belonged to a minority tribe in Goguryeo[3]. And the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms (i.e., Samguk Yusa) written several hundred years later states that he had Goguryeo lineage.
Expansion and foreign relations
 History of Korea | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jeulmun Period
Mumun Period Gojoseon, Jin Proto-Three Kingdoms: Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye Samhan Ma, Byeon, Jin Three Kingdoms: Goguryeo Sui wars Baekje Silla, Gaya North-South States: Unified Silla Balhae Later Three Kingdoms Goryeo Khitan wars Mongol invasions Joseon Japanese invasions Manchu invasions Korean Empire Japanese occupation Provisional Gov't Division of Korea Korean War North, South Korea | ||||||
| ||||||
| History of Manchuria |
|---|
| Not based on timeline |
| Early tribes |
| Gojoseon |
| Yan (state) | Gija Joseon |
| Han Dynasty | Xiongnu |
| Donghu | Wiman Joseon |
| Wuhuan | Sushen | Buyeo |
| Xianbei | Goguryeo |
| Cao Wei |
| Jin Dynasty (265-420) |
| Yuwen |
| Former Yan |
| Former Qin |
| Later Yan |
| Northern Yan |
| Mohe | Shiwei |
| Khitan | Kumo Xi |
| Northern Wei |
| Tang Dynasty |
| Balhae |
| Liao Dynasty |
| Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) |
| Yuan Dynasty |
| Ming Dynasty |
| Qing Dynasty |
| Far Eastern Republic (USSR) |
| Republic of China |
| Manchukuo |
| Northeast China (PRC) |
| Russian Far East (RUS) |
The second king Mu, who felt encircled by Tang, Silla and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang and his navy briefly occupied a port on the Shandong Peninsula in 732. Later, Tang and Balhae forged a compromise resuming tributary missions to Tang. He also sent a mission to Japan in 728 to threaten Silla from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Balhae became a buffer zone for the region.
The third king Mun expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. He also established Holhanseong, the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today's Heilongjiang province around 755. During his reign, Balhae established a trade route with Silla, called Sillado. By the eighth century, Balhae controlled northern Korea, all of Northeastern Manchuria(Northeast China), the Liaodong peninsula, and present day Primorsky Krai of Russia. Balhae's strength forced Silla to build a northern wall in 721 as well as maintain active defenses along the common border.
Fall and legacy
Traditionally, historians believed that the ethnic conflicts between ruling Koreans and underclass Malgal weakened the state. Recent study suggests that the catastrophic eruption in the tenth century of Baekdu Mountain located at the center of Balhae territory led to the downfall of Balhae. Baekdu mountain still has one of the biggest volcanic caldera in the world Heaven Lake. Ashes of that eruption can still be found in a large area, even in a sedimentary layer in northern Japan. That massive explosion created tremendous volcanic ash, damaging agriculture and even societal integrity. The Khitans took advantage of that natural disaster.
Eventually, Balhae succumb to the Khitans, an emerging power in the Liaoxi area (east of current Beijing area). After destroying Balhae in 926, the Khitan established the puppet Dongdan Kingdom, followed shortly thereafter by the annexation by Liao in 936. Liao moved some Balhae aristocrats to Liaoyang but Balhae's eastern territory remained politically independent. Some Balhae people including aristocrats (est. one million), led by the last Crown Prince Dae Gwang-Hyun (대광현), fled southward to Goryeo, the new self-claimed successor ofGoguryeo (934). Many descendants of the Balhae royal family in Goryeo, changed their family name to Tae (태,太) while Crown Prince Dae Kwang Hyun received the family name Wang (왕,王), the royal family name of Goryeo dynasty. Balhae stands as the last state in Korean history to hold any significant territory in Manchuria (Northeast China), although later Korean dynasties continued to regard themselves as successors of Goguryeo and Balhae. That began a series of northern expansions of later Korean dynasties.
The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the Jurchen people, who founded the Jin Dynasty. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people as well as the Khitans. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchen people from the seven Wuji(勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family." Balhae consorts mothered the fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin. The thirteenth century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae from other ethnic groups such asGoryeo, Khitan and Jurchen. That suggests that the Balhae people still preserved their identity even after the conquest of the kingdom.
Aftermath
After the fall of Balhae and its last king in 926, new Khitan masters renamed it Dongdan[4], who had control over most of Balhae's old territories. Starting from 927, many rebellions errupted throughout the domains. Those rebellions eventually turned into several Balhae revivals. Out of those, only three succeeded and established kingdoms: Later Balhae, Jung-Ahn Kingdom, and Dae-Won Kingdom. Those three kingdoms temporarily chased the Khitan and their Dongdan Kingdom out into the Liaodong peninsula, but the Liao Empire eventually decimated them all.
In 934, Dae Gwang-Hyun, the last Crown Prince of Balhae, revolted against their Khitan masters. After being defeated, he fled to Goryeo, where he received protection and the imperial surname. That resulted in the Liao breaking off diplomatic relations with Goryeo, but without threat to invade. [5]
Government and culture
The people of Balhae derived from former Goguryeo people and of several Tungusic peoples present in Manchuria (Northeast China), the Mohe (Malgal) made up the largest element. Heavily influenced by Tang China's culture and government, Balhae modeled its system of government upon that of Tang China, and to an even greater extent than Silla. The government operated three chancelleries and six ministries, modeling its capital, Sanggyong, after Chang'an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty. In addition, Balhae sent many students to Tang China to study, and many went on to take and pass the Chinese civil service examinations.[6][7]
At the end of the twentieth century, an important source of cultural information on Balhae had been discovered at the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain, especially the Mausoleum of Princess Jeong-Hyo.
Characterization and political interpretation
Controversy boils over the ethnic makeup of the people of Balhae. That a former general from Goguryeo founded Balhae has been widely accepted, but disputes over his ethnicity arise over ambiguous wording in historical sources. Written records from Balhae have yet to be discovered.
Koreans, particular from the Joseon Dynasty onwards, regard Balhae as a Korean state. In the eighteenth century, during the Joseon Dynasty, Korean scholars displayed a renewed interest in Balhae. The Qing and Joseon dynasties had negotiated and demarcated the Sino-Korean border along the Yalu and Tumen rivers in 1712, and Jang Ji-yeon (1762–1836), journalist, writer of nationalist tracts, and organizer of nationalist societies, published numerous articles arguing that had the Joseon officials considered Balhae part of their territory, they would not be as eager to "give up" lands north of the rivers. Yu Deuk-gong in his eighteenth-century work Parhaego (An investigation of Balhae) argued that Balhae should be included as part of Korean history, and that doing so would justify territorial claims on Manchuria (Northeast China).
Korean historian Sin Chae-ho, writing about Jiandao in the early twentieth century, bemoaned that for centuries, Korean people in their “hearts and eyes considered only the land south of the Yalu as their home” and that “half of our ancestor Dangun ancient lands have been lost for over nine hundred years.” Sin also criticized Kim Busik, author of the Samguk Sagi (Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms), for excluding Balhae from his historical work written in the twelfth century, and claiming that Silla had achieved unification of Korea.[8] Inspired by ideas of Social Darwinism, Sin wrote:
- How intimate is the connection between Korea and Manchuria? When the Korean race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is strong and prosperous. When another race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is inferior and recedes. Moreover, when in the possession of another race, if that race is the northern race, then Korea enters that northern race's sphere of power. If an eastern race obtains Manchuria, then Korea enters that race's sphere of power. Alas! This is an iron rule that has not changed for four thousand years.[9]
Neither Silla nor the later Goryeo wrote an official history for Balhae, and some modern scholars argue that had they done so, Koreans might have had a stronger claim to Balhae's history and territory. [10]
North Korean and South Korean scholars regard Balhae as a Korean state, positioned in the "North South States Period" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize connection with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think ethnic Goguryeoians comprised the ruling class while mixed, including Mohe, comprised commoners, North Korean historians maintain that people from Goguryeo inhabited Balhae. Koreans believe the founder Dae Joyeong came from Goguryeo stock. The Book of Tang says that Dae Joyeong's comes from Goguryeo lineage " (고려별종, 高麗別種),[11] and the New Book of Tang states that he is "from the Sumo Mohe of the former realm of Goguryeo."
Western scholars characterize Balhae as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. [12] [13] [14][15] Seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria (Northeast China) and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryeo. Korean scholars believe Balhae founder Dae Joyeong came from of Goguryeo lineage, while others believe him an ethnic Mohe from Goguryeo.[16] [17][18] [19] [20] [21]
Like many ancient Korean and Japanese kingdoms, Balhae sometimes paid tribute to China, and a heir who lacks that sanction China called 知國務 ("State Affairs Leader"), not king; also, China considered every king simultaneously the Prefect of Holhan/Huhan Prefecture (忽汗州都督府都督). Balhae rulers called themselves emperors and declared their own era names. Chinese historians consider Balhae composed of the Balhae ethnic group, mostly based on the Mohe. Historically, the Jurchens (later renamed the Manchus, considered themselves as sharing ancestry with the Mohe (Malgal). According to the Book of Jin (金史), the history of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, both the Jurchen and Balhae people originally descended from the seven tribes of the Wuji. After defeating the Khitan Liao Dynasty, the Jurchens proclaimed "The Jurchens and Balhae are from the same family. (女直渤海本同一家) [11] The People's Republic of China continues to consider Balhae as part of the history of its ethnic Manchus. [22]
Korean scholars accuse The People's Republic of China of limiting Korean archaeologists access to historical sites located withinLiaoning and Jilin. Starting from 1994, increasing numbers of South Korean tourists began to visit archaeological sites in China and often engaged in nationalistic acts. Aggravated by a series of tomb robberies and vandalism at several of those archaeological sites between 1995 and 2000, widely believed perpetrated by ethnic Koreans. [12]
South Korean archaeologist Song Ki-ho, a noted Seoul National University professor, who published several papers criticizing the Chinese government, made several visits to China in the 1990s, 2000, 2003, and 2004, to examine several historical sites and museums. The Chinese government restricted his note-taking and photography, even ejecting him from several sites. [23] [24] [25]
North Korea has restricted independent archaeologists from its historical sites since at least the early 1960s. Foreign scholars have criticized political bias in North Korean historiography, and have accused North Korean scholars of reconstructing or even fabricating historical sites. [13]
Russian archaeologists and scholars, like those from China, think of Balhae as an independent Mohe state, with Central Asian and Chinese influence. [14]
In relations with Japan, Balhae referred to itself as Goguryeo, and Japan welcomed that as a kind of restoration of its former friendly relationship with Goguryeo. [15] [16]
Sovereigns of Balhae 698-926
| # | Personal name | Period of reign | Era name (年號) | Posthumous name (諡號) | Temple name (廟號) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Chinese characters | Westernized | Hangul/Chinese characters | Westernized | Hangul/Chinese characters | Westernized | Hangul/Chinese characters | ||
| 0 | Dae Jung-sang Qǐqǐ Zhòngxiàng | 대중상 大仲象 | 668-699 | Junggwang Zhongguang | 중광 重光 | Yeol/Liè | 열왕 烈王 | Sejo Shizu | 세조 世祖 |
| 1 | Dae Jo-young Dà Zuòróng | 대조영 大祚榮 | 699-718 | Cheontong Tiāntǒng | 천통 天統 | Go/Gāo | 고왕 高王 | Taejo Taizu | 태조 太祖 |
| 2 | Dae Muye Dà Wǔyì | 대무예 大武藝 | 718-737 | Inan Rěn’ān | 인안 仁安 | Mu/Wǔ | 무왕 武王 | Kwangjong Guangzong | 광종 光宗 |
| 3 | Dae Heummu Dà Qīnmào | 대흠무 大欽茂 | 737-793 | Daeheung Dàxīng * | 대흥 大興 * | Mun/Wén | 문왕 文王 | Sejong Shizong | 세종 世宗 |
| 4 | Dae Won-ui Dà Yuányì | 대원의 大元義 | 793-794 | None | None | None | None | None | None |
| 5 | Dae Hwa-yeo Dà Huáyú | 대화여 大華與 | 794 | Jungheung Zhòngxīng | 중흥 中興 | Seong/Chéng | 성왕 成王 | Injong Renzong | 인종 仁宗 |
| 6 | Dae Sung-rin Dà Sōnglín | 대숭린 大嵩璘 | 794-808 | Jeongryeok Zhènglì | 정력 正曆 | Gang/Kāng | 강왕 康王 | Mokjong Muzong | 목종 穆宗 |
| 7 | Dae Won-yu Dà Yuányú | 대원유 大元瑜 | 808-812 | Yeongdeok Yǒngdé | 영덕 永德 | Jeong/Dìng | 정왕 定王 | Uijong Yizong | 의종 毅宗 |
| 8 | Dae Eon-ui Dà Yányì | 대언의 大言義 | 812-817? | Jujak Zhūqiǎo | 주작 朱雀 | Hui/Xī | 희왕 僖王 | Kangjong Kangzong | 강종 康宗 |
| 9 | Dae Myeongchung Dà Míngzhōng | 대명충 大明忠 | 817?-818? | Taesi Tàishǐ | 태시 太始 | Gan/Jiǎn | 간왕 簡王 | Cheoljong Zhezong | 철종 哲宗 |
| 10 | Dae Insu Dà Rénxiù | 대인수 大仁秀 | 818?-830 | Geonheung Jiànxīng | 건흥 建興 | Seon/Xuān | 선왕 宣王 | Seongjong Shengzong | 성종 聖宗 |
| 11 | Dae Ijin Dà Yízhèn | 대이진 大彝震 | 830-857 | Hamhwa Xiánhé | 함화 咸和 | Hwa/He | 화왕 和王 | Jangjong Zhuangzong | 장종 莊宗 |
| 12 | Dae Geonhwang Dà Qiánhuǎng | 대건황 大虔晃 | 857-871 | Daejeong Dàdìng | 대정 大定 | An | 안왕 安王 | Soonjong Shùnzhong | 순종 順宗 |
| 13 | Dae Hyeonseok Dà Xuánxí | 대현석 大玄錫 | 871-895 | Cheonbok Tianfú | 천복 天福 | Gyeong/Jǐng | 경왕 景王 | Myeongjong Mingzong | 명종 明宗 |
| 14 | Dae Wihae Dà Wěijiē | 대위해 大瑋瑎 | 895-906 | None | None | None | None | None | None |
| 15 | Dae Inseon Dà Yīnzhuàn | 대인선 大諲譔 | 906-926 | Cheongtae Qīngtài | 청태 淸泰 | Ae/Āi | 애왕 哀王 | None | None |
Note : Dae Heummu had another era name Boryeok (Hangul :보력 Hanja: 寶曆; 774-?)
