Li Chengliang – Military general of the Ming Dynasty in charge of the Jurchen tribesLi Chengliang (Chinese: 李成梁; pinyin: Lǐ Chéngliáng; Korean: 이성량) (1526 - 1618) was a Chinese general of Korean descent in the reign of the Wanli Emperor during the Ming Dynastywho was in charge of maintaining peace and relations with the Jurchen tribes. He was from Tielin and was from a military family.He never had a very prosperous childhood and early life, so he was age 40 before he received an official appointment. He slowly rose up the ranks to eventually become Liaodong Regional Commander (Chinese:遼東總兵) with the backing of the Chief Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng. Li Chengliang was twice appointed Liaodong Regional Commander. The first commission lasted 22 years, the second 8 years.During the Longqing era, the Tuman Mongols migrated east and often harassed the Liaotung region. These Mongols are very powerful. Their forces totalled several hundred thousand strong. the situation was very serious. this was Li Chengliang's first tenure as Liaodong Regional General scored five major victories against the Tuman Mongols.1575 Wanli 3 (萬歷三年)Tuman Khan commanded over a hundred thousand cavalry troops to attack and pillage the Yizhou, Jinzhou(Chinese:锦州) region. Li Chengliang soundly defeated the Tuman Khan and was greatly rewarded.1578 Wanli 6 (萬歷六年)Tuman Khan once again attacked, this time in Liaoyang (Chinese:遼陽), Li Chengliang successfully defeated the Tuman once again.1579 Wanli 7 (萬歷七年)Tuman Khan again attacked Yizhou, Jinzhou (Chinese:錦州) region. and besieged Guangning (Chinese:廣寧 now 北寧), Li Chengliang once again scored a major victory.1580 Wanli 8 (萬歷八年)Tuman Khan gathered 40,000 cavalry, each horse tailing a cattle and three sheep. Li Chengliang once again victorious.1581 Wanli 9 (萬歷九年)Tuman Khan gathered nine tribes totaling a hundred thousand men and horse and attacked Liaodong (Chinese:遼東)with the intention of attacking Beijing.In the battle, Li was in command of Giocangga and Taksi's forces, and Li had also intended to side with the Jurchen chieftain Nikan Wailan (Chinese:尼堪外蘭). When Giocangga and Taksi(Chinese:塔克世) abandoned Li to side with chieftain Atai who was their relative, Li thought they had mutinied and so left them behind in the midst of battle. When Atai was later defeated by Nikan Wailan, both Giocangga and Taksi were killed by Nikan Wailan in the aftermath.The Ming policy on the Jurchen tribes during that period was to side with different tribes during each conflict to maintain a balance and not allow one tribe to dominate and eventually unite the Jurchen tribes. Spurred by the actions of Li, Nurhaci was eventually able to unite all the Jurchen tribes, creating the Manchu. Nurhaci then blamed Li Chengliang for the death of his father, which formed part of the Seven Grievances.Of his nine sons, five Li Rusong, Li Ruzhen, Li Rubai, Li Ruzhang and Li Rumei would rise to become full generals (Chinese:總兵) and four Li Ruzi, Li Ruwu, Li Rugui, and Li Runan would become accompanying generals (Chinese:參將) for the Ming Dynasty.http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_ChengliangHistorical religions of the Xibe included Shamanism and Buddhism. Xibe costume included short buttoned jackets and trousers for men, and close-fitting, long, and lace-trimmed gowns for women. Arranged marriage was common and women had low social status, including no right to inherit property.[1] Nowadays almost all the Xibe wear Western clothing and the traditional clothing is worn by elders during festivals. Traditionally, the Xibe were divided into hala, male-led clans consisting of people who shared the same surname. Until modern times, the dwellings of the Xibe housed up to three different generations from a same family, since it was believed that while the father was alive no son could break the family clan by leaving the house.[1]The Xibe in northeast China speak Chinese as their first language. In Xinjiang, descendants of theQing dynasty military garrison speak the Xibe language, a southern Tungusic language that underwent morphophonological changes and the adoption of loanwords from Xinjiang languages including Chinese, Russian, Uyghur, and Kazakh.Native toChinaRegionXinjiangEthnicity190,000 Xibe people (2000).
During the Longqing era, the Tuman Mongols migrated east and often harassed the Liaotung region. These Mongols are very powerful. Their forces totalled several hundred thousand strong. the situation was very serious. this was Li Chengliang's first tenure as Liaodong Regional General scored five major victories against the Tuman Mongols.1575 Wanli 3 (萬歷三年)Tuman Khan commanded over a hundred thousand cavalry troops to attack and pillage the Yizhou, Jinzhou(Chinese:锦州) region. Li Chengliang soundly defeated the Tuman Khan and was greatly rewarded.1578 Wanli 6 (萬歷六年)Tuman Khan once again attacked, this time in Liaoyang (Chinese:遼陽), Li Chengliang successfully defeated the Tuman once again.1579 Wanli 7 (萬歷七年)Tuman Khan again attacked Yizhou, Jinzhou (Chinese:錦州) region. and besieged Guangning (Chinese:廣寧 now 北寧), Li Chengliang once again scored a major victory.1580 Wanli 8 (萬歷八年)Tuman Khan gathered 40,000 cavalry, each horse tailing a cattle and three sheep. Li Chengliang once again victorious.1581 Wanli 9 (萬歷九年)Tuman Khan gathered nine tribes totaling a hundred thousand men and horse and attacked Liaodong (Chinese:遼東)with the intention of attacking Beijing.In the battle, Li was in command of Giocangga and Taksi's forces, and Li had also intended to side with the Jurchen chieftain Nikan Wailan (Chinese:尼堪外蘭). When Giocangga and Taksi(Chinese:塔克世) abandoned Li to side with chieftain Atai who was their relative, Li thought they had mutinied and so left them behind in the midst of battle. When Atai was later defeated by Nikan Wailan, both Giocangga and Taksi were killed by Nikan Wailan in the aftermath.The Ming policy on the Jurchen tribes during that period was to side with different tribes during each conflict to maintain a balance and not allow one tribe to dominate and eventually unite the Jurchen tribes. Spurred by the actions of Li, Nurhaci was eventually able to unite all the Jurchen tribes, creating the Manchu. Nurhaci then blamed Li Chengliang for the death of his father, which formed part of the Seven Grievances.Of his nine sons, five Li Rusong, Li Ruzhen, Li Rubai, Li Ruzhang and Li Rumei would rise to become full generals (Chinese:總兵) and four Li Ruzi, Li Ruwu, Li Rugui, and Li Runan would become accompanying generals (Chinese:參將) for the Ming Dynasty.
According to the Russian scholar E.P. Lebedova, the Xibe people originated as a southern,Tungusic-speaking offshoot of the ancient Shiwei people. They lived in small town-like settlements, a portion of them nomadic, in the Songyuan and Bukui areas of what is now Jilinprovince.[3] When the ancient Tungusic Fu Yui state was conquered by the Xianbei in 286 CE, the southern Shiwei started practicing agriculture.[3] Some historians have theorized that the Xianbei were the direct progenitors of the Xibo, and this idea is popular among the Xibo themselves.[1]The historian Pamela Kyle Crossley writes the Xianbei might have undergone a language shiftfrom an earlier Turkic or Proto-Mongolian language to a Tungusic one. However, the name "Xibo" was not used in historical records during Xianbei times.[2] The Han, Cao Wei, and Jin Wei at times controlled the Xibo until the advent of the Göktürks, who accorded the Xibo lower status than did the Chinese dynasties.[3] At the height of their territorial dispersion, the Xibe lived in an area bounded by Jilin to the east, Hulunbuir to the west, the Nen River to the north, and the Liao Riverto the south.[1] After the fall of the Liao Dynasty, the Xibe became vassals of the Khorchin Mongols who moved to the Nen and Songhua river valleys in 1438 after the Khorchin were defeated by the Oirats.[3]Nurhaci, the founder of the Manchu people, routed the Xibe during Battle of Gure in 1593 on his way to founding the Qing Dynasty of China. From that point, the Qing contracted the Xibe forlogistical support against the Russian Empire's expansionism on China's northern border.[3]Crossley claims that the Xibe were so "well known to Russians moving toward the Pacific" that the Russians named Siberia after them.[2] In 1692, the Khorchin dedicated the Xibe, the Gūwalca and the Daur to the Kangxi Emperor in exchange for silver. The Xibe was incorporated into theEight Banners and were stationed in Qiqihar and other cities in northeast China. In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Xibes were resettled in Guisui, modern Inner Mongolia; 36,000 Songyuan Xibes were resettled in Shenyang, Liaoning. According to Jerry Norman, after a revolt by the Qiqihar Xibes in 1764, the Qianlong Emperor ordered an 800-man military escort to transfer 18,000 Xibe to the Ili valley in northwest China's Xinjiang province. In Ili, the Xinjiang Xibe built Buddhist monasteries and cultivated vegetables, tobacco, and poppies. The Xibe population declined after the Qing used them to suppress the 19th century Dungan revolt by Chinese Muslims,[3] and to fight against Russia, which occupied Ili during the revolt.[1] During the Republican period, many northeastern Xibe joined Anti-Japanese volunteer armies, while northwestern Xibe fought against the Kuomintang during the Ili Rebellion. After the 1949 Chinese revolution established thePeople's Republic of China (PRC), large-scale educational and hygiene campaigns increased Xibe literacy and resulted in the eradication of the Qapqal disease.[1] In 1954, the PRC established the Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County to replace Ningxi County in Xinjiang, in the group's area of highest ethnic concentration.Nurhaci (Manchu: ; simplified Chinese: 努尔哈赤; traditional Chinese: 努爾哈赤; pinyin:Nǔ'ěrhāchì; alternatively Nurhachi; 21 February 1559 – 30 September 1626) was an importantJurchen chieftain who rose to prominence in the late sixteenth century in Manchuria. Nurhaci was part of the Aisin Gioro clan, and reigned from 1616 to his death in September 1626.Nurhaci reorganized and united various Jurchen tribes (the later "Manchu"), consolidated theEight Banners military system, and eventually launched an assault on the Ming Dynasty andKorea's Joseon Dynasty. His conquest of China's northeastern Liaoning province laid the groundwork for the conquest of the rest of China by his descendants, who would go on to found the Qing Dynasty in 1644. He is also generally credited with the creation of a written script for theManchu language.Nurhaci was born in 1559. Being a member of the Gioro clan of the Suksuhu River tribe, Nurhaci also claimed descent from Möngke Temür, a Mongol-Jurchen headman who lived some two centuries earlier. According to Chinese sources[citation needed], the young man grew up as a soldier in the household of Ming Dynasty General Li Chengliang in Fushun, where he learned Chinese. He named his clan Aisin Gioro around 1612, when he formally ascended the throne as Khan of Later Jin.In 1582 his father Taksi and grandfather Giocangga were killed in an attack on Gure (today a village in Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County) by a rival Jurchen chieftain Nikan Wailan ("Nikan Wailan" means "Secretary of Chinese people" in Jurchen language, thus his existence is suspected by some historians.) while being led by Li Chengliang. The following year, Nurhaci began to unify the Jurchen bands around his area.In 1584, when he was 25, he attacked Nikan Wailan at Tulun (today a village in Xinbin too) to avenge the deaths of his father and grandfather, who are said to have left him nothing but thirteen suits of armor. Nikan Wailan fled away to Erhun, which got attacked by Nurhaci again in 1587. Nikan Wailan this time fled to Li Chengliang's territory. Later, as a way to build relationship, Li gave Nikan Wailan to Nurhaci, who beheaded Nikan Wailan immediately. With Li's support, Nurhaci gradually grew his strength in the following years.In 1593, the nine allied tribes of Yehe, Hada, Ula, Hoifa, Khorchin, Sibe, Guwalca, Jušeri, and Neyen attacked Nurhaci but all were completely defeated at the Battle of Gure.From 1599 to 1618, Nurhaci engaged on a campaign on conquering the four Hulun tribes. In 1599, he attacked the Hada, finally conquering the Hada in 1603. Then in 1607, with the death of its beile Baindari, Hoifa was conquered, followed by an expedition against Ula and its beileBujantai in 1613 and finally defeating Yehe and its beile Gintaisi at the Battle of Sarhu in 1619.In 1599, he had two of his translators, Erdeni Bagshi and Dahai Jarguchi, create the Manchu alphabet by adapting the Mongolian script.In 1606, he was granted the title of Kundulun Khan by the Mongols.In 1616, Nurhaci declared himself Khan (King) and founded the Jin Dynasty (aisin gurun), often called the Later Jin. He constructed a palace at Mukden (present-day Shenyang) in Liaoningprovince. (The earlier Jin Dynasty of the twelfth century had also been formed by the Jurchen.) Jīn was renamed Qīng by his son Hong Taiji after his death in 1626, but Nurhaci is usually referred to as the founder of the Qing dynasty.In order to help with the newly organized administration, five of his trusted companions were appointed as his five chief councilors, Anfiyanggū, Eidu, Hūrhan, Fiongdon, and Hohori.Nurhaci captured Liaoyang in 1621 and made it the capital of his Empire until 1625.In 1621 Nurhaci started the building of a newpalace for his Dynasty's capital in Mukden.Nurhaci led many successful engagements against the Ming Dynasty, the Koreans, the Mongols, and other Jurchen clans, greatly enlarging the territory under his control. Finally in 1626 Nurhaci suffered the first serious military defeat of his life at the hands of the Ming general Yuán Chónghuàn. Nurhaci was wounded by Yuan's Portuguese cannon (紅衣大炮) in the Battle of Ningyuan. Unable to recover either physically or mentally, he died 2 days later at a little town called De-A Man (靉福陵隆恩門) on 30 September, at the age of 68. His tomb (Chinese: 福陵;pinyin: Fúlíng) is located east of Shenyang.
Legacy
Among the most lasting contributions Nurhaci left his descendants was the establishment of the so-called Eight Banners, which would eventually form the backbone of the military that dominated the Qing empire. The status of Banners did not change much over the course of Nurhaci's lifetime, nor in subsequent reigns, remaining mostly under the control of the royal family. The two elite Yellow Banners were consistently under Nurhaci's control. The two Blue Banners were controlled by Nurhaci's brother Šurhaci until he died, at which point the Blue Banners were given to Šurhaci's two sons-Chiurhala and Amin. Nurhaci's eldest son-Cuyen- controlled the White Banner for most of his father's reign – until he rebelled. Then the Bordered White Banner was given to Nurhaci's grandson and the Plain White was given to his eighth son and heir, Hong Taiji. However, by the end of Nurhaci's reign, Hong Taiji controlled both White Banners. Finally, the Red Banner was run by Nurhaci's second son Daishan. Later in Nurhaci's reign, the Bordered Red Banner was handed down to his son. Daishan and his son would continue holding the two Red Banners well into the end of Hong Taiji's reign.Nurhaci watching his army storm the walls of Ningyuan, 1626.The details of Hong Taiji's succession as Jurchen khan are unclear.[1] When he died in late 1626, Nurhaci did not designate an heir; instead he encouraged his sons to rule collegially.[2] Three of his sons and a nephew were the "four senior beiles": Daišan (43 years old), Amin (son of Nurhaci's brother Šurhaci; 40 or 41), Manggūltai (38 or 39), and Hung Taiji himself (33).[3] On the day after Nurhaci's death, they coerced his primary consort Lady Abahai (1590–1626)––who had borne him three sons: Ajige, Dorgon, and Dodo––to commit suicide to accompany him in death.[4] This gesture has made some historians suspect that Nurhaci had in fact named the fifteen-year-old Dorgon as a successor, with Daišan as regent.[5] By forcing Dorgon's mother to kill herself, the princes removed a strong base of support for Dorgon. The reason such intrigue was necessary is that Nurhaci had left the two elite Yellow Banners to Dorgun and Dodo, who were the sons of Lady Abahai. Hong Taiji exchanged control of his two White Banners for that of the two Yellow Banners, shifting their influence and power from his young brothers onto himself.[citation needed]According to Hung Taiji's later recollections, Amin and the other beile were willing to accept Hung Taiji as khan, but Amin then would have wanted to leave with his Bordered Blue Banner, threatening to dissolve Nurhaci's unification of the Jurchens.[6] Eventually the older Daišan worked out a compromise that allowed Hung Taiji as the khan, but almost equal to the other three senior beiles.[7] Hung Taiji would eventually find ways to become the undisputed leader.
Primary sources
Great-Great-GrandfatherMöngke Temür (1370–1433), personal name Mengtemu (孟特穆), posthumously honored as Emperor Yuan (原皇帝, Da Hūwangdi) with the temple name of Zhaozu (肇祖, Deribuhe Mafa)Great-Great-Grandmother or step-great-great-grandmotherMengtemu's wife, posthumously honored as Empress Yuan (原皇后 Da Hūwanghu)Great-GrandfatherFuman, posthumously honored as Emperor Zhi (直皇帝, Tondo Hūwangdi) with the temple name of Xingzu (興祖, Yendibuhe Mafa)Great-grandmother or step-great-grandmotherLady Hitara (喜塔拉氏), Fuman's wife, daughter of Captain Doulijin (都督 都理金), posthumously honored as Empress Zhi (直皇后)GrandfatherGiocangga (died 1583), posthumously honored as Emperor Yi (翼皇帝, Gosingga Hūwangdi) with the temple name of Jingzu (景祖, Mukdembuhe Mafa)Grandmother or step-grandmotherGiocangga's wife, posthumously honored as Empress Yi (翼皇后, Gosingga Hūwanghu)FatherTaksi (died 1583), posthumously honored as Emperor Xuan (宣皇帝, Hafumbuha Hūwangdi) with the temple name of Xianzu (顯祖, Iletuleha Mafa)MotherLady Hitara (喜塔拉氏) (died 1569), Taksi's wife, daughter of Captain Agu (都督 阿古), granddaughter of Captain Cancha (都督 參察), great-granddaughter of Captain Doulijin (都督 都里吉), posthumously honored as Empress Xuan (宣皇后, Hafumbuha Hūwanghu)
Siblings
Brothers (same mother)Šurhaci (舒爾哈齊) (1564–1611)Yarhaci (雅爾哈齊)Sister (same mother)Lady Aisin Gioro (愛新覺羅氏), married Gahašan Hasihu (噶哈善哈斯虎)Half-BrothersBayara (巴雅齊)Murhaci (穆爾哈齊) (1582–1624)
Consorts
Nurhaci had a total of 16 consorts:Lady Tunggiya (佟佳氏), given name Hahana Jacing (哈哈納扎青), daughter of Tabonbayan (塔木巴晏). She married Nurhaci in 1577 as his first wife and initial consort. After the founding of theQing Dynasty, she was posthumously honored as First Consort (元妃; Yuan Fei). Lady Tunggiya bore Nurhaci three children:Princess DongguoCuyen, Crown PrinceDaišan, Prince LiLady Fuca (富察氏), given name Gundai (袞代). She was Nurhaci's second consort. After the founding of the Qing Dynasty, she was posthumously honored as Successor Consort (繼妃; Ji Fei). Lady Fuca bore Nurhaci three children:ManggūltaiMangguji, Princess HadaDegelei, BeileLady Yehenara (葉赫那拉氏) (given name Monggo Jer-Jer (孟古哲哲)) (1575–1603), daughter of Prince Yangginu of the Yehenara (葉赫部貝勒楊吉砮). She married Nurhaci in October 1588 at the age of 13. On 16 May 1636, she was posthumously honored as Empress Xiaocigao (孝慈高皇后). Lady Yehenara bore Nurhaci one child:Hong TaijiLady Ulanara (烏喇那拉氏) (given name Abahai (阿巴亥)) (1590–1626), daughter of Prince Mantai of the Ulanara (烏拉貝勒滿泰) (died 1596). She married Nurhaci in 1602 at the age of 12. In 1603 she was created Grand Consort (大妃). She was posthumously honored as Empress Xiaoliewu (孝烈武皇后). Lady Ulanara bore Nurhaci three children:Ajige, Prince YingDorgon, Prince RuiDodo, Prince YuLady Borjigit (博爾濟吉特氏), posthumously honored as Dowager Consort Shou Kang (壽康太妃).Four of Nurhaci's consorts held the rank of Side Chamber Consort (側妃; Ze Fei):Lady Irgen Gioro (伊爾根覺羅氏), bore Nurhaci two children:Princess NunjeAbataiLady Yehenara (葉赫那拉氏), younger sister of Empress Xiaocigao. She bore Nurhaci one child:Nurhaci's eighth daughtertwo unnamed consortsFive of Nurhaci's consorts held the rank of Ordinary Consort (庶妃; Shu Fei):Lady Joogiya (兆佳氏), bore Nurhaci one child:Abai, Duke of ZhenLady Niuhuru (鈕祜祿氏), bore Nurhaci two children:Tangguldai, Duke of FuTabai, Duke of FuLady Giyamuhut Gioro (嘉穆瑚覺羅氏) (given name Zhen'ge (真哥)), bore Nurhaci five children:Babutai, Duke of ZhenMukushenBabuhaiNurhaci's fifth daughterNurhaci's sixth daughterLady Silin Gioro (西林覺羅), bore Nurhaci one child:Laimbu, Duke of FuLady Irgen Gioro (伊爾根覺羅氏), bore Nurhaci one child:Nurhaci's seventh daughter
Sons
Eldest son: Cuyen (褚英) (1580–1618), Nurhaci's initial Crown Prince, posthumously honored as Crown Prince Guang'e (廣略太子)2nd: Daišan (代善) (19 August 1583 – 25 November 1648), created Prince Li of the First Rank (禮親王), granted the posthumous name Lie (烈)3rd: Abai (8 September 1585 – 14 March 1648), created "General Who Stabilizes the State" (鎮國將軍), posthumously honored as "Duke Who Stabilizes the State" (鎮國公) with the posthumous name Qinmin (勤敏), had 7 sons4th: Tangguldai (湯古代) (24 December 1585 – 3 November 1640), created "General Who Stabilizes the State" (鎮國將軍), posthumously honored by the Shunzhi Emperor as "Duke Who Assists the State" (輔國公) with the posthumous name Kejie (克潔), had 2 sons5th: Manggūltai (莽古爾泰) (1587 – 11 January 1633)6th: Tabai (塔拜) (2 April 1589 – 6 September 1639), created "General Who Assists the State" (輔國將軍), posthumously honored as "Duke Who Assists the State" (輔國公) with theposthumous name Quehou (慤厚), had eight sons7th: Abatai (阿巴泰) (27 July 1589 – 10 May 1646)8th: Hong Taiji (皇太極) (28 November 1592 – 21 September 1643), succeeded Nurhaci asEmperor of the Qing Dynasty9th: Babutai (巴布泰) (13 December 1592 – 27 February 1655), created "Duke Who Stabilizes the State" (鎮國公), granted the posthumous name Kexi (恪僖), had 3 sons10th: Degelei (德格類) (16 December 1592 – 11 November 1635), held the rank of Beile, had 3 sons11th: Babuhai (巴布海) (15 January 1597 – 1643)12th: Ajige (阿濟格) (28 August 1605 – 28 November 1651)13th: Laimbu (賴慕布) (26 January 1612 – 23 June 1646), posthumously honored as "Duke Who Assists the State" (輔國公) with the posthumous name Jiezhi (介直)14th: Dorgon (多爾袞) (17 November 1612 – 31 December 1650), created Prince Rui of the First Rank (睿親王), granted the posthumous name Zhong (忠), posthumously honored as an Emperor of the Qing Dynasty with the temple name of Chengzong (成宗) by the Shunzhi Emperor15th: Dodo (多鐸) (2 April 1614 – 29 April 1649), created Prince Yu of the First Rank (豫親王) with the posthumous name Tong (通)16th: Fiyanggu (費揚果) (November 1620 – ?), had four sons
Daughters
Eldest daughter: Princess Donggo (東果格格) (1578 – August/early September 1652), married in 1588 Hohori (何和禮) (1561–1624), held the rank of State Princess (固倫公主)2nd: Princess Nunje (嫩哲格格) (1587 – late August/early September 1646), married Darkhan (達爾漢), held the rank of Princess of the Second Rank (和碩公主)3rd: Mangguji (莽古濟) (1590–1635), married firstly in 1601 Hadanara Worgudai (哈達部納喇.吳爾古代) (son of Menggebulu (孟格布祿)) and had two daughters, married secondly in 1627 Borjigit Suonuo Muduling (博爾濟吉特.瑣諾木杜凌), held the title of Princess Hada (哈達公主)4th: Mukushen (穆庫什) (1595 – ?); married in 1608 Prince Bujantai of the Ulanara (烏拉國主布佔泰), last prince of the Ula5th: Princess ? (1597–1613); married in 1608 Niohuru Daki (鈕祜祿.達啟), son of Niohuru Eidu (鈕祜祿.額亦都)6th: Princess ? (1600 – October/early November 1646), married in 1613 Yehenara Suna (葉赫那拉.蘇納) (father of Suksaha)7th: Princess ? (April 1604 – August 1685), married in November or early December 1619 Nara Ezhayi (納喇.鄂札伊) (died May/early June 1641)8th: Princess ? (1612 – March/April 1646), married in February or early March 1625 Borjigit Gorbushi (博爾濟吉特.固爾布什), held the rank of Princess of the Second Rank (和碩公主)
The Manchu alphabet was used for recording the now near-extinct Manchu language; a similar script is used today by the Xibe people, who speak a language descended from Manchu. It is written vertically from top to bottom, with columns proceeding from left to right.
History
China (Xinjiang · Liaoning · Jilin)LanguagesXibeReligionBuddhism, Polytheism and Shamanism[1]Related ethnic groupsNanai, Manchu, Orok, Evenks, SolonThe Xibe or Sibo[2] ( Sibe; simplified Chinese: 锡伯; traditional Chinese: 錫伯; pinyin: Xībó) are a Tungusic ethnic group living mostly in Northeast China and Xinjiang. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.
During the Chinese Tang Dynasty (ca. 7th century CE), Sogdian was the lingua franca of a vastCentral Asian region along the Silk Road,[2] along which it amassed a rich vocabulary by loan words such as tym ("hotel") from the Chinese diàn (店).[3]The economic and political importance of Sogdian guaranteed its survival in the first few centuries after the Islamic conquest of Sogdiana in the early eighth century AD. A dialect of Sogdian spoken around the 8th century in Ustrashana (capital: Bunjikat, near present-dayIstaravshan, Tajikistan), a region to the south of Sogdiana, developed into Yaghnobi languageand has survived into the 21st century. It is spoken by the Yaghnobi people.The finding of manuscript fragments of the Sogdian language in China's Xinjiang region sparked the study of the Sogdian language. Robert Gauthiot, (the first Buddhist Sogdian scholar) and Paul Pelliot, (who while exploring in Dunhuang, retrieved Sogdian material) began investigating the Sogdian material that Pelliot had discovered. Gauthiot published many articles based on his work with Pelliot's material, but died during the First World War. One of Gauthiot's most impressive articles was a glossary to the Sogdian text, which he was in the process of completing when he died. This work was continued by Emile Benveniste after Gauthiot's death.[4]Various Sogdian pieces have been found in the Turpan text corpus, by the German Turpan expeditions. These expeditions were controlled by the Ethnological Museum of Berlin.[4] These pieces consist almost entirely of religious works by Manichaean and Christian writers. Most of the Sogdian religious works are from the 9th and 10th centuries.[5]The Tun-huang and the Turpan were the two most plentiful sites of Manichean, Buddhist, and Christian Sogdian texts. Sogdiana itself actually contained a much smaller collection of texts. These texts were business related, belonging to a minor Sogdian king, Dewashtich. These business texts dated back to the time of the Arab conquest, about 700.[5]The Sogdian script is the direct ancestor of the Uyghur script, itself the forerunner of the Mongolian script.The Sogdian language also used the Manichean script, which consisted of 29 letters.[7]
Three main varieties of the Sogdian alphabet developed over time: Early Sogdian, an archaic non-cursive type; the sutra script, a calligraphic script used in Sogdian Buddhist scriptures; and the so-called "Uyghur" cursive script (not to be confused with the Old Uyghur alphabet).[1] Early Sogdian dates to the early fourth century C.E., and is characterized by distinct, separated graphemes.[4] The sutra script appears around 500 C.E., while the cursive script develops approximately a century later. The cursive script is thus named because its letters are connected with a base line. Since many letters in the cursive script are extremely similar in form, to the point of being indistinguishable, it is the most difficult to read of the three varieties.[2] As the Sogdian alphabet became more cursive and more stylized, some letters became more difficult to distinguish, or were distinguished only in final position, e.g. n and z.[4]Sogdian script on the Bugut Inscription (585), centralMongolia. Sogdian is the distant ancestor of the Mongolian script.Bugut Inscription (585), centralMongolia. Sogdian is the distant ancestor of the Mongolian script.The "Uyghur" cursive script eventually developed into the Old Uyghur alphabet, which was used to write the Uyghur language.[2] This child script was, however, rotated 90 degrees, written in a vertical direction from top to bottom, but with the first vertical line starting from the left side, not from the right as in Chinese, most probably because the right-to-left direction was used in horizontal writing. The Mongolian alphabet proper, being an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet, still uses this kind of vertical writing, as does its remoter descendant Manchu.[5]
Tatars (Tatar: Татарлар / Tatarlar, Old Turkic: ), sometimes spelled Tartars, are aTurkic[7][8][9][10][11] ethnic group in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The Tatars are a native people of the Volga region of Russia, Tatarstan and Bashkortostan. Most Tatars live in theRussian Federation, with a population of 5.5 million, including 2 million in the republic ofTatarstan, 1 million in the republic of Bashkortostan and 2.5 million in other regions of Russia. After the dissolution of the USSR, significant populations of Tatars found themselves in the newly independent Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Ukraine.Cossacks fighting Tatars ofCrimea.The first written record of the name "Tatar" appears on the Kul Tigin monument as Otuz Tatar Bodun ('Thirty Tatar' tribe).[citation needed] The name Tatar likely originated amongst the nomadic Tatar confederation in the north-eastern Gobi desert in the 5th century.[12] The name "Tatars" was used an alternative term for the Shiwei, a nomadic confederation to which these Tatar people belonged.As various of these nomadic groups became part of Genghis Khan's army in the early 13th century, a fusion of Mongol and Turkic elements took place, and the invaders of Rus and thePannonian Basin became known to Europeans as Tatars or Tartars (see Tatar yoke).[12] After the breakup of the Mongol Empire, the Tatars became especially identified with the western part of the empire, known as the Golden Horde.[12] The name "Tatar" became a name for populations of the former Golden Horde in Europe, such as those of the former Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan, Qasim, and Siberian Khanates.The form Tartar has its origins in either Latin or French, coming to Western European languages from Turkish and Persian Tātār ("mounted courier, mounted messenger; postrider"). From the beginning, the extra r was present in the Western forms, and according to the Oxford English Dictionary this was most likely due to an association with Tartarus (Hell in Greek mythology), though some claim that the name Tartar was in fact used amongst the Tatars themselves. Another possibility is that Tartar in British Received Pronunciation is pronounced as Tātar. Nowadays Tatar is usually used to refer to the people, but Tartar is still almost always used for derived terms such as tartar sauce or steak tartare.[13]Some Volga Tatars prefer to be called Bulgars and reject the Tatar name, a position known asBulgarism. Bulgarism pertains to the notion that the Volga Tatars are actual Bulgars.Kul TiginKul TiginKul Tigin (Old Turkic:, Kultegin,[1] (闕特勒/阙特勤, Pinyin: quètèqín, Wade-Giles: chüeh-t'e-ch'in, ? - 575 AD) was a general of the Second Turkic Kaganate. He was a second son of Ilterish Shad and the younger brother of Bilge Kagan.During the reign of Mochuo Kagan, Kul Tigin and his older brother earned reputation for their military prowess. They defeated Kyrgyz, Turgesh, and Karluks, extending the Kaganate territory all the way to the Iron Gates (modern day Derbent in Dagestan). They also subjugated all nine of the Tokuz Oguz tribes.Upon the death of Mochuo Kagan, Mochuo's son attempted to illegally ascend to the throne, defying the traditional Lateral succession law, but Kül-Tegin refused to recognize the takeover. He raised an army, attacked, and killed Mochuo's son and his trusted followers. He raised his elder brother Mojilian, who took the title Bilge (The Wise) Kagan, and took the title of Shad, an equivalent of commander-in-chief of the army for himself.In 731 Kül-Tegin fell ill and died. A stele in memory of Kul Tigin, which included inscriptions in both the Turkic and Chinese, was erected at his memorial complex at the present site ofKhöshöö-Tsaidam-2.[2] Kül-Tegin is also mentioned in the inscription erected in memory of his older brother Bilge Kagan at the neighbouring site of Khöshöö-Tsaidam-1.Prince Kül-Tegin descended from the "Gold (Kagan's) clan of the ancient Türkic dynastic tribe Ashina (Hot.-Sak. blue) called Shar-Duly (Middle Persian zarr duli "Golden bird Duli", i.e. "Golden/Red Raven"). All royal Oguzes traced their descent from this mythical bird Dulu/Tulu. The headdress on the glabella part of Kül-Tegin sculpture in the Husho-Tsaidam enclave (Orkhon, Northern Mongolia) carries a bird with wings spread like an eagle, personifying a Raven.[3]All royal Oguzes traced their descent from this mythical bird Dulu/Tulu. The headdress on the glabella part of Kül-Tegin sculpture in the Husho-Tsaidam enclave (Orkhon, Northern Mongolia) carries a bird with wings spread like an eagle, personifying a Raven.[3]Kul Tigin Monument inscribed in Old Turkic alphabetParent systemsPhoenicianAramaicSyriacSogdianChild systemsMongolianManichaean scriptOld Uyghur alphabetThe Sogdian alphabet was originally used for the Sogdian language, a language in the Iranian family used by the people of Sogdiana.[1] The alphabet is derived from Syriac, the descendant script of the Aramaic alphabet. The Sogdian alphabet is one of three scripts used to write the Sogdian language, the others being the Manichaean alphabet and the Syriac alphabet.[1] It was used throughout Central Asia, from the edge of Iran in the west, to China in the east, from approximately 100-1200 C.E.[1]Sogdian text. Manichaean Letter
Mongols were highly tolerant of most religions, to the extent of sponsoring several at the same time. At the time of Genghis Khan, virtually every religion had found converts, from Buddhism toChristianity and Manichaeism to Islam. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a shamanist. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation, and from public service.[100]Initially there were few formal places of worship, because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Ögedei (1186–1241), several building projects were undertaken in the Mongol capital ofKarakorum. Along with palaces, Ögedei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist followers. The dominant religions at that time were Shamanism, Tengrismand Buddhism, although Ögedei's wife was a Nestorian Christian.[101] Eventually, three of the four principal khanates embraced Islam.[102][103]The oldest surviving literary work in the Mongolian language is The Secret History of the Mongols, which was written for the royal family sometime after Genghis Khan's death in 1227. It is the most significant native account of Genghis's life and genealogy, covering his origins and childhood, through to the establishment of the Mongol Empire and the reign of his son, Ögedei.Another classic from the empire is the Jami' al-tawarikh, or "Universal History". It was commissioned in the early 14th century by the Ilkhan Abaqa Khan, as a way of documenting the entire world's history, to help establish the Mongols' own cultural legacy. With hundreds of illustrated pages, it was effectively one of the first written histories of the world.14th century Mongol scribes used a mixture of resin and vegetable pigments as a primitive form of correction fluid[104]; this is arguably its first known usage.The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their taste in portraiture was strictly focused on portraits of their horses, rather than of people. queef
Mail system
The Mongol Empire had an ingenious and efficient reader mail system for the time, often referred to by scholars as the Yam, which had lavishly furnished and well guarded relay posts known asörtöö setup all over the Mongol Empire. The yam system would be replicated later in the United States, in the form of the Pony Express.[105] A messenger would typically travel 25 miles (40 km) from one station to the next, either receiving a fresh, rested horse, or relaying the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery. The Mongol riders regularly covered 125 miles (200 km) per day, better than the fastest record set by the Pony Express some 600 years later.[citation needed]Genghis and his successor Ögedei built a wide system of roadways, one of which carved the Altai Range. After his enthronement, Ögedei further organized the road system, ordering the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde to link up roads in western parts of the Mongol Empire.[106][citation needed] In order to reduce pressure on households, he set up relay stations with attached households every 25 miles (40 km). Anyone with paiza was allowed to stop there for re-mounts and specified rations, while those carrying military identities used the Yam even without a paiza. When the Great Khan died in Karakorum, news reached the Mongol forces under Batu Khan in Central Europe within 4–6 weeks thanks to the Yam.[42]Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty, built special relays for high officials, as well as ordinary relays which had hostels. During Kublai's reign, the Yuan communication system consisted of some 1,400 postal stations, which used 50,000 horses, 8,400 oxen, 6,700 mules, 4,000 carts, and 6,000 boats.[citation needed]In Manchuria and southern Siberia, the Mongols still used dogsled relays for the yam. In the Ilkhanate, Ghazan restored the declining relay system in the Middle East on a restricted scale. He constructed some hostels and decreed that only imperial envoys could receive a stipend. The Jochids of the Golden Horde financed their relay system by a special yam tax.[citation needed]An Islamic gold coin inscribed in the name of Genghis Khan.Batu Khan consolidates theGolden Horde.The Mongols had a strong history of supporting merchants and trade. Genghis Khan had encouraged foreign merchants early in his career, even before uniting the Mongols. Merchants provided him with information about neighboring cultures, served as diplomats and official traders for the Mongols, and were essential for many needed goods, since the Mongols produced little of their own.Mongols sometimes provided capital for merchants and sent them far afield, in an ortoq(merchant partner) arrangement. As the empire grew, any merchants or ambassadors with proper documentation and authorization received protection and sanctuary as they traveled through Mongol realms. Well-traveled and relatively well-maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing overland trade and resulting in some dramatic stories of those who travelled through what would come be known as the famed Silk Road.Marco Polo is a famous western explorer who traveled east along the Silk Road, and the Chinese Mongol monk Rabban Bar Sauma made a comparably epic journey along the Road who ventured from his home of Khanbaliq (Beijing) to as far as Europe. And European missionaries, like William of Rubruck, also traveled to the Mongol court to convert believers to their cause, or went as papal envoys (sent on behalf of the pope) to correspond with Mongol rulers in an attempt to secure aFranco-Mongol alliance. It was rare, however, for anyone to journey the full length of Silk Road. Instead, merchants moved products like a bucket brigade, goods being traded from one middleman to another, moving from China all the way to the West; the goods moved over such long distances reached extravagant prices.[citation needed]After Genghis, the merchant partner business continued to flourish under his successors Ögedei and Güyük. Merchants brought clothing, food, information, and other provisions to the imperial palaces, and in return the Great Khans gave the merchants tax exemptions, and allowed them to use the official relay stations of the Mongol Empire. Merchants also served as tax farmers in China, Russia and Iran. If the merchants were attacked by bandits, losses were made up from the imperial treasury.[citation needed]Policies changed under the Great Khan Möngke. Because of money laundering and overtaxing, he attempted to limit abuses and sent imperial investigators to supervise the ortoq businesses. He decreed all merchants must pay commercial and property taxes, and he paid off all drafts drawn by high-ranking Mongol elites from the merchants. This policy continued in the Yuan Dynasty.[citation needed]The fall of the Mongol Empire in the 14th century led to the collapse of the political, cultural, and economic unity along the Silk Road. Turkic tribes seized the western end of the Silk Road trade routes from the decaying Byzantine Empire, and sowed the seeds of a Turkic culture that would later crystallize into the Ottoman Empire under the Sunni faith. In the East, the native Chinese overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368, launching their own Ming Dynasty and pursuing a policy of economic isolationism.[107]The Mongol Empire had a lasting impact, unifying large regions, some of which (such as eastern and western Russia and the western parts of China) remain unified today, albeit under different rulership. The Mongols, except the main population, might have been assimilated into local populations after the fall of the empire, and some of these descendants adopted local religions — for example, the eastern khanates largely adopted Buddhism, and the western khanates adoptedIslam, largely under Sufi influence.[108]According to some[specify] interpretations, Genghis Khan's conquests caused wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale in certain geographical regions, and therefore led to some changes in the demographics of Asia, such as the mass migration of the Iranian tribes of Central Asia into modern-day Iran. The Islamic world was also subject to massive changes as a result of Mongol invasions. The population of the Iranian plateau suffered from widespread disease and famine, resulting in the deaths of up to three-quarters of its population, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Historian Steven Ward estimates that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century.[109]Non-military achievements of the Mongol Empire included the introduction of a writing system, a Mongol alphabet based on the Uighur characters, that is still used today in Inner Mongolia.[110]Some of the other long-term consequences of the Mongol Empire include:Moscow rose to prominence during the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some time after Russian rulers were accorded the status of tax collectors for the Mongols. The fact that the Russians collected tribute and taxes for the Mongols meant that the Mongols themselves would rarely visit the lands that they owned. The Russians eventually gained military power, and their ruler Ivan III overthrew the Mongols completely to form the Russian Tsardom. After the Great stand on the Ugra riverproved the Mongols vulnerable, this led to the independence of the Grand Duke of Moscow.[citation needed]Europe's knowledge of the known world was immensely expanded by the information brought back by ambassadors and merchants. When Columbus sailed in 1492, his missions were to reach Cathay, the land of the Grand Khan in China, and give him a letter from the monarchsFerdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile.[citation needed]Some research studies indicate that the Black Death which devastated Europe in the late 1340s may have traveled from China to Europe along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire. In 1347, theGenoese possessor of Caffa, a great trade emporium on the Crimean peninsula, came under siege by an army of Mongol warriors under the command of Janibeg. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from the disease, they decided to use the infected corpses as a biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants.[111] The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of Europe, whence it rapidly spread. The total number of deaths worldwide from the pandemic is estimated at 75 million people, with an estimated 20 million deaths in Europe alone. There are claims[by whom?] of lesser casualties in the Mongol Empire due to superior hygiene and Oriental medicine.[citation needed]Dominican martyrs killed by Mongols during the Mongol invasion of Poland in 1260.Western researcher R. J. Rummel estimated that 30 million people were killed under the rule of the Mongol Empire. The population of China fell by half in fifty years of Mongol rule. Before the Mongol invasion, the territories of the Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. While it is tempting to attribute this major decline solely to Mongol ferocity, scholars today have mixed opinions regarding this subject. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than a de facto decrease, whilst others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols reduced much of the south Chinese population, and very debatably of the Han Chinese population to an invisible status through cancellation of right to passports and denial of right to direct land ownership. This meant that the Chinese had to depend and be cared for chiefly by Mongols and Tartars, which also involved recruitment into the Mongol army. When possibly resisted by Muslim women in the aftermath of the Tangut princess episode, this is reported to have led to close to an infraction in the trafficking in women. Forbidden in the Jasa/Zasaq, women were distributed freely after what has been alleged in footnotes to Igor de Rachewitz edition of the Niuca Mongqol-un Tovcha´an to have been ordered tantamount sexual abuse, with two casualties alleged out of four thousand. Other historians such as William McNeill and David Morgan argue that the Bubonic Plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period.[citation needed]The Crimean Khanate was the longest-lived of the successor states to the Mongol Empire; it was finally annexed by Russia in 1783.In addition to the khanates and other descendants, the Mughal royal family of South Asia are also descended from Genghis Khan: Babur's mother was a descendant — whereas his father was directly descended from Timur (Tamerlane). The word "Mughol" is an Arabic word for Mongol.Kalmyks were the last Mongol nomads to penetrate European territory, having migrated to Europe from Central Asia at the turn of the 17th century. In the winter of 1770–1771, approximately 200,000 Kalmyks began the journey from their pastures on the left bank of theVolga River to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Kazakh and Kyrgyz enemies. After several months of travel, only one-third of the original group reached Dzungaria in northwest China.[118]Mongol invasion of Rus (pictures)
The number of troops mustered by the Mongols is the subject of some scholarly debate,[94] but was at least 105,000 in 1206.[95] The Mongol military organization was simple but effective, based on the decimal system. The army was built up from squads of ten men each, called anarbat; ten arbats constituted a company of one hundred, called a zuut; ten zuuts made a regiment of one thousand called myanghan and ten myanghans would then constitute a division of ten thousand (tumen).[96]The Mongols were most famous for their horse archers, but troops armed with lances were equally skilled, and the Mongols recruited other military talents from the cities they conquered. With experienced Chinese engineers and bombardier corps who were experts in buildingtrebuchets, Xuanfeng catapults and other machines, the Mongols could lay siege to fortified positions, sometimes building machinery on the spot using available local resources.[96]Forces under the command of the Mongol Empire were trained, organized, and equipped for mobility and speed. Mongol soldiers were more lightly armored than many of the armies they faced, but able to make up for it with maneuverability. Each Mongol warrior would usually travel with multiple horses, allowing him to quickly switch to a fresh mount as needed. In addition, soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of supply lines, considerably speeding up army movement.[97]Skilful use of couriers enabled these armies to maintain contact with each other and their leadership. Discipline was inculcated during a nerge (traditional hunt), as reported by Juvayni. These hunts were distinctive from hunts in other cultures where they were the equivalent to small unit actions. Mongol forces would spread out in a line, surround an entire region, and then drive all of the game within that area together. The goal was to let none of the animals escape and slaughter them all.[97]Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large distances even in unusual cold winters; for instance, frozen rivers led them like highways to large urban centers on their banks. In addition to siege engineering, the Mongols were also adept at river-work, crossing the river Sajó in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry soldiers in a single night during the battle of Mohi (April, 1241) to defeat the Hungarian king Béla IV. Similarly, in the attack against the Muslim Khwarezmshah, a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river.[citation needed]Traditionally known for their prowess with ground forces, the Mongols rarely used naval power, with a few exceptions. In the 1260s and 1270s they used seapower while conquering the Song Dynasty of China, though they were unable to mount successful seaborne campaigns against Japan. Around the Eastern Mediterranean, their campaigns were almost exclusively land-based, with the seas being controlled by the Crusader and Mamluk forces.[98]All military campaigns were preceded by careful planning, reconnaissance and gathering of sensitive information relating to enemy territories and forces. The success, organization and mobility of the Mongol armies permitted them to fight on several fronts at once. All adult males up to the age of 60 were eligible for conscription into the army, a source of honor in their tribal warrior tradition.[99]The executed - long and full beard probably means he is not a Mongol - has been thrown off a cliff.The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis, called Yassa, meaning "order" or "decree". A particular canon of this code was that those of rank shared much of the same hardship as the common man. It also imposed severe penalties – e.g., the death penalty was decreed if one mounted soldier following another did not pick up something dropped from the mount in front. Penalties were also decreed for rape and to some extent for murder. On the whole, the tight discipline made the Mongol Empire extremely safe and well-run; European travelers were amazed by the organization and strict discipline of the people within the Mongol Empire.[citation needed]Under Yassa, chiefs and generals were selected based on merit. Religious tolerance was guaranteed, and thievery and vandalizing of civilian property was strictly forbidden.[citation needed]The empire was governed by a non-democratic parliamentary-style central assembly, calledKurultai, in which the Mongol chiefs met with the Great Khan to discuss domestic and foreign policies. Kurultais were also convened for the selection of each new Great Khan.[citation needed]Genghis was very tolerant of other religions, and never persecuted people on religious grounds. This was associated with their culture and progressive thought (Roger Bacon). Some historian of the 20th century thought that it was a good military strategy, the occasion in which he was at war with Sultan Muhammad of Khwarezm, other Islamic leaders did not join the fight against Genghis — it was instead seen as a non-holy war between two individuals.[citation needed]Throughout the empire, trade routes and an extensive postal system (yam) were created. Many merchants, messengers and travelers from China, the Middle East and Europe used the system. Genghis Khan also created a national seal, encouraged the use of a written alphabet in Mongolia, and exempted teachers, lawyers, and artists from taxes, although taxes were heavy on all other subjects of the empire.[citation needed]At the same time, any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive collective punishment. Cities were destroyed and their inhabitants slaughtered if they defied Mongol orders.[citation needed]Persian miniature showingGhazan's conversion from Buddhism to Islam.Main article: Religion in the Mongol EmpireMongols were highly tolerant of most religions, to the extent of sponsoring several at the same time. At the time of Genghis Khan, virtually every religion had found converts, from Buddhism toChristianity and Manichaeism to Islam. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a shamanist. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation, and from public service.[100]Initially there were few formal places of worship, because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Ögedei (1186–1241), several building projects were undertaken in the Mongol capital ofKarakorum. Along with palaces, Ögedei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist followers. The dominant religions at that time were Shamanism, Tengrismand Buddhism, although Ögedei's wife was a Nestorian Christian.[101] Eventually, three of the four principal khanates embraced Islam.[102][103]
Arts and literature
The oldest surviving literary work in the Mongolian language is The Secret History of the Mongols, which was written for the royal family sometime after Genghis Khan's death in 1227. It is the most significant native account of Genghis's life and genealogy, covering his origins and childhood, through to the establishment of the Mongol Empire and the reign of his son, Ögedei.Another classic from the empire is the Jami' al-tawarikh, or "Universal History". It was commissioned in the early 14th century by the Ilkhan Abaqa Khan, as a way of documenting the entire world's history, to help establish the Mongols' own cultural legacy. With hundreds of illustrated pages, it was effectively one of the first written histories of the world.14th century Mongol scribes used a mixture of resin and vegetable pigments as a primitive form of correction fluid[104]; this is arguably its first known usage.The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their taste in portraiture was strictly focused on portraits of their horses, rather than of people. queef1305 letter (a roll measuring 302 by 50 centimetres (9.91 by 1.6 ft)) from the Ilkhan Mongol Öljaitü to KingPhilip IV of France.The Mongol Empire had an ingenious and efficient reader mail system for the time, often referred to by scholars as the Yam, which had lavishly furnished and well guarded relay posts known asörtöö setup all over the Mongol Empire. The yam system would be replicated later in the United States, in the form of the Pony Express.[105] A messenger would typically travel 25 miles (40 km) from one station to the next, either receiving a fresh, rested horse, or relaying the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery. The Mongol riders regularly covered 125 miles (200 km) per day, better than the fastest record set by the Pony Express some 600 years later.[citation needed]Genghis and his successor Ögedei built a wide system of roadways, one of which carved the Altai Range. After his enthronement, Ögedei further organized the road system, ordering the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde to link up roads in western parts of the Mongol Empire.[106][citation needed] In order to reduce pressure on households, he set up relay stations with attached households every 25 miles (40 km). Anyone with paiza was allowed to stop there for re-mounts and specified rations, while those carrying military identities used the Yam even without a paiza. When the Great Khan died in Karakorum, news reached the Mongol forces under Batu Khan in Central Europe within 4–6 weeks thanks to the Yam.[42]Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty, built special relays for high officials, as well as ordinary relays which had hostels. During Kublai's reign, the Yuan communication system consisted of some 1,400 postal stations, which used 50,000 horses, 8,400 oxen, 6,700 mules, 4,000 carts, and 6,000 boats.[citation needed]In Manchuria and southern Siberia, the Mongols still used dogsled relays for the yam. In the Ilkhanate, Ghazan restored the declining relay system in the Middle East on a restricted scale. He constructed some hostels and decreed that only imperial envoys could receive a stipend. The Jochids of the Golden Horde financed their relay system by a special yam tax.[citation needed]In Manchuria and southern Siberia, the Mongols still used dogsled relays for the yam. In the Ilkhanate, Ghazan restored the declining relay system in the Middle East on a restricted scale. He constructed some hostels and decreed that only imperial envoys could receive a stipend. The Jochids of the Golden Horde financed their relay system by a special yam tax.[citation needed]
A stele of Mongke Khan in Mongolia (dated 1257).Hulagu, Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the Il-Khanate. From a medieval Persian manuscript.Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on Muslim and Mongol administrators, and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution system into a fixed poll tax which was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need.[56]His court also tried to lighten the tax burden on commoners by reducing tax rates. Along with the reform of the tax system, he reinforced the guards at the postal relays and centralized control of monetary affairs. Möngke also ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 which took several years to complete, not being finished until Novgorod in the far northwest was counted in 1258.[56]In another move to consolidate his power, Möngke assigned his brothers Hulagu and Kublai to rule Persia and Mongol-held China. In the southern part of the empire, he continued his predecessors' struggle against the Song Dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Möngke dispatched Mongol armies under his brother Kublai to Yunnan, and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as well.[49]Kublai conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253, and Möngke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule. Subutai's son, Uryankhadai, reduced neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and beat the Trần Dynasty in northernVietnam into temporary submission in 1258.[49]
New invasions of the Middle East and Southern China
After stabilizing the empire's finances, Möngke once again sought to expand its borders. Atkurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the Middle East andsouth China. Möngke put Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu's army.[57]The Muslims from Qazvin denounced the menace of the Nizari Ismailis, a heretical sect ofShiites. The Mongol Naiman commander Kitbuqa began to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu deliberately advanced in 1256. Ismaili Grand Master Rukn ud-Dinsurrendered in 1257 and was executed. All of the Ismaili strongholds in Persia were destroyed by Hulagu's army in 1257 though Girdukh held out until 1271.[57]Fall of Baghdad in 1258, an event often considered as the single most catastrophic event in the history of Islam.The center of the Islamic Empire at the time was Baghdad, which had held power for 500 years but was suffering internal divisions. When its caliph al-Mustasim refused to submit to the Mongols, Baghdad was besieged and captured by the Mongols in 1258, an event considered as one of the most catastrophic events in the history of Islam, and sometimes compared to the rupture of the Kaaba. With the destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Hulagu had an open route to Syria and moved against the other Muslim powers in the region.[58]His army advanced towards Ayyubid-ruled Syria, capturing small local states en route. The sultan Al-Nasir Yusuf of the Ayyubids refused to show himself before Hulagu; however, he had accepted Mongol supremacy two decades earlier. When Hulagu headed further west, theArmenians from Cilicia, the Seljuks from Rum and the Christian realms of Antioch and Tripolisubmitted to Mongol authority, joining the Mongols in their assault against the Muslims. While some cities surrendered without resisting, others such as Mayafarriqin fought back; their populations were massacred and the cities were sacked.[58]
Death of Möngke Khan (1259)
Meanwhile, in the northwestern portion of the empire, Batu's successor and younger brotherBerke sent punitive expeditions to Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. Dissension began brewing between the northwestern and southwestern sections of the Mongol Empire, as Batu suspected that Hulagu's invasion of Western Asia would result in the elimination of Batu's own predominance there.[59]In the southern part of the empire, Möngke Khan himself led his army to complete the conquest of China. Military operations were generally successful, but prolonged, so the forces did not withdraw to the north as was customary when the weather turned hot. Disease ravaged the Mongol forces with bloody epidemics, and Möngke died there on August 11, 1259. This event began a new chapter of history for the Mongols, as again a decision needed to be made on a new Great Khan. Mongol armies across the empire withdrew from their campaigns to once again convene for a new kurultai.[60]The extent of the Mongol Empire after the death of Möngke Khan (r. 1251–59).Dispute over succession
Möngke's brother Hulagu broke off his successful military advance into Syria, withdrawing the bulk of his forces to Mughan and leaving only a small contingent under his general Kitbuqa. The opposing forces in the region, the Christian Crusaders and Muslim Mamluks, both recognizing that the Mongols were the greater threat, took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with each other.[61]In 1260, the Mamluks advanced from Egypt, being allowed to camp and resupply near the Christian stronghold of Acre, and engaged Kitbuqa's forces just north of Galilee, at the Battle of Ain Jalut. The Mongols were defeated, and Kitbuqa executed. This pivotal battle marked the western limit for Mongol expansion, as the Mongols were never again able to make any serious military advances farther than Syria.[61]In a separate part of the empire, another brother of Hulagu and Möngke, Kublai, heard of the Great Khan's death at the Huai River in China. Rather than returning to the capital, he continued his advance into the Wuchang area of China, near the Yangtze River. Their younger brotherAriqboke took advantage of the absence of Hulagu and Kublai, and used his position at the capital to win the title of Great Khan for himself, with representatives of all the family branches proclaiming him as the leader at the kurultai in Karakorum. When Kublai learned of this, he summoned his own kurultai at Kaiping, where virtually all the senior princes and great noyans resident in North China and Manchuria supported his own candidacy over that of Ariqboke.[44]
Civil war
Battles ensued between the armies of Kublai and those of his brother Ariqboke, which included forces still loyal to Möngke's previous administration. Kublai's army easily eliminated Ariqboke's supporters, and seized control of the civil administration in southern Mongolia. Further challenges took place from their cousins, the Chagataids.[62][63][64]Kublai sent Abishka, a Chagataid prince loyal to him, to take charge of Chagatai's realm. But Ariqboke captured and then executed Abishka, having his own man Alghu crowned there instead. Kublai's new administration blockaded Ariqboke in Mongolia to cut off food supplies, causing a famine. Karakorum fell quickly to Kublai, but Ariqboke rallied and re-took the capital in 1261.[62][63][64]In the southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but clashes with their cousin Berke, the ruler of the Golden Horde in the northwestern part of the empire, began in 1262. The suspicious deaths of Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, unequal distribution of war booties and Hulagu's massacres of the Muslims increased the anger of Berke, who considered supporting a rebellion of the Georgian Kingdom against Hulagu's rule in 1259–1260.[65][full citation needed] Berke also forged an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks against Hulagu, and supported Kublai's rival claimant, Ariqboke.[66]Hulagu died on February 8, 1264. Berke sought to take advantage of this and invade Hulagu's realm, but died himself along the way, and a few months later, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate died as well. Kublai named Hulagu's son Abaqa as a new Ilkhan, and Abaqa sought foreign alliances, such as attempting to form a Franco-Mongol alliance with the Europeans against the Egyptian Mamluks. To lead the Golden Horde, Kublai nominated Batu's grandsonMöngke Temür.[67] Ariqboqe surrendered to Kublai at Shangdu on August 21, 1264.[68]Rabban Bar Sauma, the ambassador of Great Khan Kublai and IlkhanArghun, travelled from Dadu in the East, to Rome, Paris and Bordeauxin the West, meeting with the major rulers of the period in 1287–1288.Campaigns of Kublai Khan (1264-1294)
In the south, after the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, the Mongols sought the final conquest of the Song Dynasty in South China. In 1271, Kublai renamed the new Mongol regime in China as theYuan Dynasty, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win the control of the millions of Chinese. Kublai moved his headquarters to Dadu, the genesis for what later became the modern city of Beijing, although his establishment of a capital there was a controversial move to many Mongols who accused him of being too closely tied to Chinese culture.[69][70]The Mongols were eventually successful in their campaigns against China, and the Chinese Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Chinese people to conquer all of China. Kublai used his base to build a powerful empire, creating an academy, offices, trade ports and canals, and sponsoring arts and science. Mongol records list 20,166 public schools created during his reign.[71]Having achieved actual or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having seen his successful conquest of China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China. However, his costly invasions of Burma, Annam, Sakhalin and Champa secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1280) and Java (1293) failed.[71]Nogai and Konchi, the khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan Dynasty and the Ilkhanate. Political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Great Khan continued, but the economic and commercial success of the Mongol Empire continued despite the squabbling.[72][73][74]
Disintegration into competing entities
The Mongol Empire circa 1300 AD, showing its subdivisions of the Golden Horde (yellow), the Chagatai Khanate (gray), Great Yuan (green) and the Ilkhanate (purplehttp://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_EmpireA map of the Chagatai Khanate in the late 13th century.Major changes occurred in the Mongol Empire in the late 1200s. Kublai Khan, after having conquered all of China and established the Yuan Dynasty, died in 1294, and was succeeded by his grandson Temür Khan, who continued Kublai's policies. The Ilkhanate remained loyal to the Yuan court but endured its own power struggle, in part because of a dispute with the growing Islamic factions within the southwestern part of the empire.[75]When Ghazan took the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1295, he formally accepted Islam as his own religion, marking a turning point in Mongol history after which Mongol Persia became more and more Islamic. Despite this though, Ghazan continued to strengthen ties with Temür Khan and the Yuan Dynasty in the east. It was politically useful to advertise the Great Khan's authority in the Ilkhanate, because the Golden Horde in Russia had long made claims on nearby Georgia.[75]Within four years, Ghazan began sending tributes to the Yuan court, appealed to other khans to accept Temür Khan as their overlord, and oversaw an extensive program of cultural and scientific interaction between the Ilkhanate and the Yuan Dynasty in the following decades.[76]Ghazan's faith may have been Islamic, but he continued his ancestors’ war with the Egyptian Mamluks, and consulted with his old Mongolian advisers in his native tongue. He defeated the Mamluk army at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299, but was only briefly able to occupy Syria, due to distracting raids from the Chagatai Khanate, under its de facto ruler Kaidu, who was at war with both the Ilkhans and the Yuan Dynasty.[citation needed]Struggling for influence within the Golden Horde, Kaidu sponsored his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan (r. 1299–1304), the khan of the White Horde. Bayan, after receiving military support from the Mongols in Russia, requested assistance from both the Great Khan Temür and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack against Kaidu's forces. Temür was amenable, and enlarged counterattacks against Kaidu a year later. After a bloody battle with Temür's armies near Zawkhan River in 1301, the old valiant Kaidu died, and was succeeded by Duwa.[77][78]khans, Temür (Yuan), Chapar (House of Ögedei), Toqta (Golden Horde), and Öljaitü (Ilkhanate), in the Fleur des histoires d'orient.[79]
End of southern expansions
End of southern expansions
In spite of his conflicts with Kaidu and Duwa, Yuan emperor Temür established a tributary relationship with the war-like Shan brothers after his series of military operations againstThailand from 1297 to 1303. This was to mark the end of the southern expansion of the Mongols. Some Mongols sought to decrease internal strife, and unify under Temür. Duwa initiated a peace proposal and persuaded the Ögedeids that "Let we Mongols stop shedding blood of each other. It is better to surrender to Khagan Temür".[80][81] In 1304, all khanates approved a peace treaty, and accepted Temür's supremacy.[82][83][84][85]Duwa was challenged by Kaidu's son Chapar, but with the assistance of Temür, Duwa defeated the Ögedeids. Tokhta of the Golden Horde, also seeking a general peace, sent 20,000 men to buttress the Yuan frontier.[86] After Tokhta's death in 1312 though, he was succeeded by Ozbeg(r. 1313–41), who seized the throne of the Golden Horde and persecuted non-Muslim Mongols. The Yuan's influence on the Horde was largely reversed and border clashes between Mongol states resumed. Ayurbawda Khan's envoys backed Tokhta's son against Ozbeg.[citation needed]In the Chagatai Khanate, Esen Buqa I (r. 1309-1318) was enthroned as khan after suppressing a sudden rebellion by Ögedei's descendants and driving Chapar into exile. The Yuan and Ilkhanid armies eventually attacked the Chagatai Khanate. Realizing economic benefits and the Genghisid legacy, Ozbeg reopened friendly relations with the Yuan in 1326, and strengthened ties with the Muslim world as well, building mosques and other elaborate places such as baths.[citation needed]By the second decade of the 14th century, Mongol invasions had further decreased. In 1323, Abu Said Khan (r. 1316-35) of the Ilkhanate signed a peace treaty with Egypt. At his request, the Yuan court awarded his custodian Chupan the title of commander-in-chief of all Mongol khanates. But Chupan's reputation could not save his life in 1327.[87]A new civil war erupted in the Yuan Dynasty in 1327-1328, with Chagatai khan Eljigidey (r. 1326–29) supporting Kusala, the Yuan Khagan Khayisan's son, as Great Khan. Kusala was elected on August 30, 1329. Fearing Chagataid influence on the Yuan, Tugh Temür's (1304–1332) Kypchakcommander poisoned him, and took power for himself. In order to be accepted by other khanates as the sovereign of Mongol world, Tugh Temür, who had a good knowledge of Chinese language and history and was also a creditable poet, calligrapher, and painter, sent Genghisid princes and descendants of other notable Mongol generals to the Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhan Abu Said and Ozbeg. In response to the emissaries, they all agreed to send tribute each year.[88]Tugh Temür also gave lavish presents and an imperial seal to Eljigidey to mollify his anger. The Kypchak and the Alans became even more powerful at the court of the Yuan than had been seen since Temür's reign. Pope John XXII was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing their Pax Mongolica: "...Khagan is one of the greatest monarchs and all lords of the state, e.g. the king of Almaligh (Chagatai Khanate), emperor Abu Said and Uzbek Khan, are his subjects, saluting his holiness to pay their respects. These 3 monarchs send their overlord leopards, camels, falcons as well as precious jewelries every year. ... They acknowledge him as their absolute supreme lord.".[89]With the relative stability (Pax Mongolica) brought to the region by the Mongol conquests, international trade and cultural exchanges flourished between Asia and Europe. The communications between the Yuan Dynasty in China and Ilkhanate in Persia further encouraged the trade and commerce between the east and the west. Patterns of Yuan royal textiles could be found on the opposite side of the empire adorning Armenian decorations; trees and vegetables were transplanted across the empire; and technological innovations spread from Mongol dominions towards the West.[90][citation needed]Reconstruction of a Mongol warriorWith the death of Ilkhan Abu Said Bahatur in 1335, the Mongol rule in Persia fell into political anarchy. A year later his successor was killed by an Oirat governor and the Ilkhanate was divided between the Suldus, the Jalayir, Qasarid Togha Temür (d. 1353) and Persian warlords. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Georgians pushed the Mongols out of their own territory, and the Uyghur commander Eretna established an independent state (Ertenids) in Anatolia in 1336. Following the downfall of their Mongol masters, the all-time loyal vassal, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, received escalating threats from the Mamluks, and were eventually overrun.[citation needed]Along with the dissolution of the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia, Mongol rulers in China and theChagatai Khanate were also in turmoil. Plagues such as the Black Death, which certainly started in the Mongol dominions and then spread to Europe, added to the confusion. Disease devastated all the khanates, cutting off commercial ties and killing off millions.[91] By the end of the 14th century, it may have taken 70–100 million lives in Africa, Asia and Europe.[citation needed]As the power of the Mongols declined, chaos erupted everywhere as non-Mongol leaders struggled for their own influence. The Golden Horde lost all of its western dominions (including modern Belarus and Ukraine) to Poland and Lithuania from 1342 to 1369. Muslim and non-Muslim princes in the Chagatai Khanate warred with each other from 1331–1343, and the Chagatai Khanate disintegrated when non-Genghisid warlords set up their own puppet khans inTransoxiana and Moghulistan. Janibeg Khan (r. 1342–1357) briefly reasserted Jochid dominance over the Chaghataids to restore their former glory. Demanding submission from an offshoot of the Ilkhanate in Azerbaijan, he boasted that "today three uluses are under my control".[92]However, rival families of the Jochids began fighting for the throne of the Golden Horde after the assassination of his successor Berdibek Khan in 1359. The last Yuan ruler Toghan Temür (r. 1333–70) was powerless to regulate those troubles because the empire had nearly reached its end. His court's unbacked currency had entered a hyperinflationary spiral and the Han-Chinese people revolted due to the Yuan's harsh restrictions. In the 1350s Gongmin of Goryeosuccessfully pushed Mongolian garrisons back and exterminated the family of Toghan Temür Khan's empress while Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen managed to eliminate the Mongol influence in Tibet.[92]In the 1350s Gongmin of Goryeosuccessfully pushed Mongolian garrisons back and exterminated the family of Toghan Temür Khan's empress while Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen managed to eliminate the Mongol influence in Tibet.[92]Increasingly isolated from their subjects, the Mongols quickly lost most of China to the rebelliousMing forces in 1368 and fled to their homeland Mongolia. After the overthrow of the Yuan Dynasty, the Golden Horde lost touch with Mongolia and China, while the two main parts of the Chagatai Khanate were defeated by Timur (Tamerlane) (1336–1405). The Golden Horde broke into smaller Turkic-hordes that declined steadily in power through four long centuries. Among them, the khanate's shadow Great Horde survived until 1502, when one of its successors, theCrimean Khanate, sacked Sarai.[93]The Yuan remnants, known as Northern Yuan, continued to rule Mongolia until 1635 when the semi-nomadic Manchus from Manchuria defeated them. The Khalkha under the Genghisids and their former subjects, the Oirat Mongols, lost their independence to the Qing Dynasty in 1691 and 1755 respectively, and the remnants of the Crimean Khanate were annexed by the Russian Empire in 1783.[93]
IGenghis Khan died in 1227, by which point the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to theCaspian Sea – an empire twice the size of the Roman Empire and Muslim Caliphate. Genghis had stated that his heir should be his third son, the charismatic Ögedei. The regency was originally held by Ögedei's younger brother Tolui, until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229.[26]Among his first actions, Ögedei sent troops to subjugate the Bashkirs, Bulgars, and other nations in the Kipchak-controlled steppes.[27] In the east, Ögedei's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing the Eastern Xia regime and Water Tatars. In 1230, the Great Khan personally led his army in the campaign against the Jin Dynasty (China). Ögedei's generalSubutai captured Emperor Wanyan Shouxu's capital, Kaifeng in 1232.[28] In 1234, three armies commanded by Ögedei's sons Kochu and Koten, as well as the Tangut general Chagan, invaded southern China. With the assistance of the Song Dynasty, the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234.[29][30]In the West, Ögedei's general Chormaqan destroyed Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the last shah of theKhwarizmian Empire. The small kingdoms in Southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy.[31][32] In East Asia, there were a number of Mongolian campaigns into Goryeo Korea, but Ögedei's attempt to annex the Korean Peninsula met with little success. The king of Goryeo,Gojong, surrendered but revolted and massacred Mongol darughachis (overseers), and then moved his imperial court from Gaeseong to Ganghwa Island.[33]As the empire grew, Ögedei established a Mongol capital at Karakorum in northwestern Mongolia.[34]
Invasions of Kievan Rus' and central China
Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the Song Dynasty, Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the Yangtze and Sichuan, but did not secure their control over the conquered sites. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang-yang from the Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ögedei's son Kochu in Chinese territory, the Mongols withdrew from southern China, although Kochu's brother Prince Koten invaded Tibet right after their withdrawal.[19]Another grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan, overran the countries of the Bulgars, the Alans, the Kypchaks, Bashkirs, Mordvins, Chuvash, and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237, the Mongols began encroaching upon their first Kievan Rus' principality, Ryazan. After a 3 day-siege using heavy attacks, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants, then proceeded to destroy the army of the Grand principality of Vladimir at the Battle of the Sit River.[35]The Mongols captured the Alania capital, Maghas, in 1238. By 1240, all Kievan Rus' had fallen to the Asian invaders except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persiaconnected his invasion of Transcaucasia with the invasion of Batu and Subutai, forced theGeorgian and Armenian nobles to surrender as well.[35]Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. Batu's relations withGüyük, Ögedei's eldest son, and Büri, the beloved grandson of Chagatai Khan, remained tense, and worsened during Batu's victory banquet in southern Kievan Rus'. Nevertheless, Güyük and Buri could not do anything to harm Batu's position as long as his uncle Ögedei was still alive. Meanwhile, Ögedei continued with Mongol invasions into the Indian subcontinent, temporarily investing Uchch, Lahore and Multan of the Delhi Sultanate and stationing a Mongol overseer inKashmir,[36] though the invasions into India eventually failed and were forced to drive back. In northeastern Asia, Ögedei agreed to settle conflicts with Goryeo by making it a client state and sent Mongolian princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his keshig with the Koreans through both diplomacy and military force.[37][38][39]
Push into central Europe
The advance into Europe continued with Mongol invasions of Poland and Hungary. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a European alliance between the Poles, theMoravians, and the Christian military orders of the Hospitallers, Teutonic Knights and theTemplars assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly, the Mongol advance at Legnica. The Hungarian army, their Croatian allies and the Templar Knights were beaten by Mongols at the banks of Sajo River on April 11, 1241. After their victories over European Knights at Legnicaand Muhi, Mongol armies quickly advanced across Bohemia, Serbia, Babenberg Austria and into the Holy Roman Empire.[40][41]Before Batu's forces could continue into Vienna and northern Albania, news of Ögedei's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the invasion.[42][43] As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes of Genghis's line had to attend the kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year.[44]
Post-Ögedei power struggles (1241-1251)
Following the Great Khan Ögedei's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ögedei's widowTöregene took over the empire. She persecuted her husband's Khitan and Muslim officials, giving high positions to her own allies instead. She built palaces, cathedrals and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education.[45]She was able to win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ögedei's son Güyük. But Batu, ruler of the Golden Horde, refused to come to the kurultai, claiming he was ill and the Mongolian climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate lasted more than four years. It also further destabilized the unity of the empire.[45]When Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge threatened Töregene to seize the throne, Güyük came to Karakorum to try and secure his position.[46] Batu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to the kurultai which Töregene convened in 1246. Güyük by this time was ill and alcoholic, but his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of stature necessary for a Great Khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire—leaders of vassal nations, and representatives from Rome and other entities, who came to the kurultai to show their respects and negotiate diplomacy.[47][48]Seal from Güyük Khan's letter toPope Innocent IV, 1246.Güyük took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue the policies of his father Ögedei, not Töregene. He punished Töregene's supporters, except governor Arghun the Elder. He also replaced young Qara Hülëgü, the khan of the Chagatai Khanate, with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke to assert his newly conferred powers.[49]He restored his father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by the Uyghur,Naiman and Central Asian officials, favoring Han Chinese commanders who helped his father's conquest of Northern China. He continued military operations in Korea, advanced into Song China in the south and Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire-wide census. Güyük also divided the Sultanate of Rum between Izz-ad-Din Kaykawus and Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan, though Kaykawus disagreed with this decision.[49]Stone TurtleThe Silver Tree of Karakorum. 18th-century Dutch imagination.Karakorum (Classical Mongolian: ᠬᠠᠷᠠᠬᠣᠷᠣᠮ Qara Qorum, Khalkha Mongolian: Хархорум Kharkhorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, and of the Northern Yuan in the 14–15th centuries. Its ruins lie in the northwestern corner of the Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia, near today's town of Kharkhorin, and adjacent to the Erdene Zuu monastery. They are part of the upper part of the World Heritage Site Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape.Foundation
The Orkhon valley was a center of the Xiongnu, Göktürk and Uyghur empires. To the Göktürks, the nearby Khangai Mountains had been the location of the Ötüken, and the Uighur capitalKarabalgasun was located close to where later Karakorum would be erected. This area is probably also one of the oldest farming areas in Mongolia.[1]In 1218/19, Genghis Khan rallied his troops for the campaign against the Khwarezm Empire in a place called Karakorum,[2] but the actual foundation of a city is usually said to have only occurred in 1220. Until 1235, Karakorum seems to have been little more than a yurt town; only then, after the defeat of the Jin empire, did Genghis' successor Ögedei erect walls around the place and build a fixed palace.[3]The name Karakorum or "Kharkhorin" in Mongolian language might be translated as "black quarter/space". "Khar" means "black" and "khorin" probably shares the same root as the verb "khori (to imprison/hold)" as in "khorigdoh" that means "to be imprisoned/held". "Khori" also means "twenty" like "khorin mori (twenty horses)", but it is unlikely that there would be a "black twenty".
Prosperity
Under Ögedei and his successors, Karakorum became a major site for world politics. Möngke Khan had the palace enlarged, and the great stupa temple completed.[3] They also commissioned the famous Silver Tree of Karakorum at the city center. The sculptor was Guillaume Bouchier.[4] A large tree sculpted of silver and other precious metals rose up from the middle of the courtyard and loomed over the palace,with the branches of tree extended into the building. Silver fruit hung from the limbs and it had four golden serpents braided around the trunk. At the top of the tree rose a trumpet angel. When the khan wanted to summon the drinks for his guests, the mechanical angel raised the trumpet and to his lips and sounded the horn, whereupon the mouths of the serpents began to gush out a fountain of alcoholic beverages into the large silver basin arranged at the base of the tree.[5]
William of Rubruck
William of Rubruck, a Flemish Franciscan missionary and papal envoy to the Mongols reached Karakorum in 1254. He has left one of the most detailed, though not always flattering, accounts of the city. He compared it rather unfavourably to the village of Saint-Denis near Paris, and was of the opinion that the royal abbey there was ten times as important as the Khan's palace. On the other hand, he also described the town as a very cosmopolitan and religiously tolerant place, and the silver tree he described as part of Möngke Khan's palace has become the symbol of Karakorum.[6] He described the walled city as having four gates facing the four directions, two quarters of fixed houses, one for the "Saracenes" and one for the "Cathai", twelve pagan temples, two mosques, as well as a Nestorian church.[3]
Later times
When Kublai Khan claimed the throne of the Mongol Empire in 1260—as did his younger brother,Ariq Boke—he relocated his capital to Shangdu, and later to Dadu (today's Beijing). Karakorum was reduced to the administrative center of a provincial backwater of the Yuan Dynasty founded in China in 1271. Even worse, the ensuing wars with Ariq Boke and later Kaidu hit the town hard. In 1260, Kublai disrupted the town's grain supply, in 1277 Kaidu took Karakorum, only to be ousted by Yuan troops and Bayan of the Baarin in the following year.[7] In 1298/99 prince Ulus Buqa looted the markets and the grain storehouses. However, the first half of the 14th century proved to be a second time of prosperity: in 1299, the town was expanded eastwards, in 1311 and again from 1342 to 1346 the stupa temples were renewed.[3]
Decline
After the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 Karakorum became the residence of Biligtü Khanin 1370. In 1388, Ming troops took and destroyed the town. Saghang Sechen's Erdeni-yin Tobčiclaims that a khuriltai in 1415 decided to rebuild it, but no archeological evidence for such a venture has been found yet. However, Karakorum was inhabited at the beginning of the 16th century, when Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan made it a capital once again. In the following years, the town changed hands between Oirads and Chinggisids several times, and was consequently given up permanently.[3]The Silver Tree Fountain of Karakorum (modern reconstruction)ran was birth descendent to Genghis Khan!
By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives: the Golden Hordekhanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in the west, the Ilkhanate in the southwest, and the Yuan Dynasty based in modern-day Beijing.[12] In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Yuan Dynasty,[13][14] but when it was overthrown by theHan Chinese Ming Dynasty in 1368, the Mongol Empire finally dissolved.What is referred to in English as the Mongol Empire was called the Ikh mongol uls (Great Mongolian Nation).[15] In the 1240s, Genghis's descendant Güyük Khan wrote a letter to Pope Innocent IV which used the preamble, "Dalai (great/oceanic) Khagan of the great Mongol state (ulus)".[16]After the succession war between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke, Ariq limited Kublai's real power to the eastern part of the empire, Kublai officially issued an imperial edict on December 18, 1271 to name the country "Great Yuan" (Dai Yuan, or Dai Ön Ulus) to establish theYuan Dynasty. Some sources state that the full Mongolian name was Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus.[17]
Ancient Iran was Islam-Egypt birth of islam/fabricated jew bible noah's arc/1st babylonia.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_EmpireMongol EmpireIkh Mongol Uls↓1206–1368↓Modern reconstruction of the Nine Base White BannersCapitalAvargaKarakorum[note 1]Dadu[note 2] (modern Beijing)LanguagesMongolian, Chinese, Turkic, Iranian.Religion Tengrism Buddhism Islam ChristianityGovernmentElective monarchyGreat Khan - 1206–1227Genghis Khan - 1229–1241Ögedei Khan - 1246–1248Güyük Khan - 1251–1259Möngke Khan - 1260–1294Kublai Khan - 1333–1370Toghan Temür KhanLegislatureKurultaiHistory - Genghis Khan unified the tribes and proclaimed the Great Mongol State1206 - Death of Genghis Khan1227 - Pax Mongolica1210–1350 - Fragmentation of the empire1260–1264 - Fall of Yuan Dynasty, marking the empire's final dissolution1368 - Collapse of Chagatai Khanate1687CurrencyCoins (such as dirhams), Sukhe, paper money(paper currency backed by silk or silver ingots, and the Yuan's Chao)The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: listen Mongol-yn Ezent Güren; Cyrillic: Монголын эзэнт гүрэн, in Russian chronicles also Horde - Russian: Орда) existed during the 13th and 14th centuries, and was the largest contiguous land empire in human history.[1] Beginning in the Central Asian steppes, it eventually stretched from Central Europe to the Sea of Japan, coveringSiberia in the north and extending southward into Myanmar, Laos the Indian subcontinent, theIranian plateau, and the Middle-east.The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes of historicalMongolia under the leadership of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan was proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and then under the rule of his descendants, who sent invasions in every direction.[2][3][4][5][6][7] The vast transcontinental empire which connected the east with the west with an enforced Pax Mongolica allowed trade, technologies, commodities and ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged acrossEurasia.[8][9]The empire began to split as a result of wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from Genghis's son and initial heir Ögedei, or one of his other sons such as Tolui, Chagatai, or Jochi. The Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagataid factions, but disputes continued even among the descendants of Tolui. After Möngke Khan died, rival kurultai councils would simultaneously elect different successors, the brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai, who then not only had to defy each other, but also deal with challenges from descendants of other of Genghis's sons.[10][11] Kublai successfully took power, but civil war ensued, as Kublai sought, unsuccessfully, to regain control of the Chagatayidand Ögedeid families.The Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 marked the high-water point of Mongol conquests, and was the first time a Mongol advance had ever been beaten back in direct combat on the battlefield. Though the Mongols launched many more invasions into Levant, briefly occupying it and raiding as far as Gaza after a decisive victory at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299, they withdrew due to various geopolitical factors.By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives: the Golden Hordekhanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in the west, the Ilkhanate in the southwest, and the Yuan Dynasty based in modern-day Beijing.[12] In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Yuan Dynasty,[13][14] but when it was overthrown by theHan Chinese Ming Dynasty in 1368, the Mongol Empire finally dissolved.
The period of prosperity ended during the Swedish invasion of Poland (1655 - 1660), when Siedlce, together with most Lesser Poland’s towns and cities, was burned by the Cossacks,Tatars, Muscovities, Swedes and the Transilvanians. After these conflicts, the town belonged to the Czartoryski family, as a dowry of Joanna Olędzka, who married Prince Michał Jerzy Czartoryski. In 1692 Siedlce burned, and the destruction was used by Kazimierz Czartoryski, the son of Michał Jerzy, to plan a new, modern market square, together with adjacent streets. In the first half of the 18th century, a new parish church was built. In 1775, after Aleksandra Czartoryska married Hetman Michał Kazimierz Ogiński, the town passed over to the Ogiński family. At that time Siedlce emerged as one of the most important cultural centers of the nation, the Ogiński Palace was visited by several notable artists and writers, such as Franciszek Karpiński, andJulian Ursyn Niemcewicz. King Stanisław August Poniatowski visited the palace twice, in 1783 and 1793. Due to efforts of Aleksandra Ogińska, several improvements took place in Siedlce. Among them, a new town hall was built, which now is one of symbols of the city. Until 1807, when it was confiscated by the Russian authorities, Siedlce remained a private property.After the third partition of Poland (1795), Siedlce belonged to the Habsburg Empire, and in 1807, it became part of the Duchy of Warsaw. After the creation of Russian-controlled Congress Poland(1815), Siedlce became the seat of a province (see Podlasie Governorate). During the November Uprising, the Battle of Iganie (April 10, 1831) took place near the town. In the January Uprising, Siedlce was an important center of the rebellion. In the early 20th century, local students protested against the Russification, and in 1906, Russian secret police organized here the Siedlce pogrom. Nevertheless, the town developed, with new administration buildings, post office complex, prison and courthouse. In the late 19th century, Siedlce became an important railroad junction, with connections to Warsaw (completed 1866), Brześć (1867), Małkinia Górna (1884), and Czeremcha (1906). Earlier on, in 1867, Siedlce Governorate was created. At that time, Siedlce was an important center of Jewish culture, with Jews making 50% of the population.In the Second Polish Republic, Siedlce since 1918 belonged to Lublin Voivodeship. The town was a large military garrison, where 9th Infantry Division was stationed, and remained an important rail junction. During World War II, the area of Siedlce was home to large partisan units of theHome Army and other organizations, such as Armia Ludowa. Due to German terror, the town lost one-third of its population, including its Jewish minority. In late July 1944 (see Operation Tempest), Home Army units freed the town, together with the Red Army. After the war, 50% of Siedlce was in ruins, including the town hall.Until the Second World War, like many other cities in Europe, Siedlce had a significant Jewish population. At some times, indeed, Jews were the majority of its population. The presence of Jews at Siedlce is attested from the mid-16th century - inn keepers, merchants and artisans. A Jewish hospital existed in the town since the early 18th century. In 1794, a Beit Midrash (study hall) was founded in the town and 1798 the Jewish cemetery was extended, testifying to the increase of the community. These changes coincided with the town coming under Austrian rule with the Third Partition of Poland. Austrian rule lasted until 1809. It was passed to Russian rule in 1815 formally (in 1813 de facto), that lasted for over a hundred years. Until 1819 the Jewish community of Warsaw, 90 kilometres (56 miles) to the west, was formally subject to the authority of the Siedlce rabbis.For much of the 19th Century - a time when the town's population steadily increased - Jews were the majority of Siedlce's population: 3,727 (71.5%) in 1839; 4,359 (65%) in 1841; 5,153 (67.5%) in 1858; 8,156 (64%) in 1878. Later on, the percentage of Jews decreased due to non-Jewish migration: according to Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 23,700, Jews constituted 11,400 (so around 48% percent).[1] The first Polish census, in 1921, recorded 14,685 Jews living in Siedlce. Their number remained steady in the interwar period, and in 1939, on the eve of the Second World War, there were some 15,000 Jews living in the town.[citation needed] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, secular political and cultural activity was evident among Jews in Siedlce, as in the whole of Eastern Europe. In 1900 the Bund started activity in the town, as did the Zionist movement, and many of the town's Jews were adherents of Polish Socialist Party. Between 1911-1939 two Yiddish weeklies were published in the town, and a Jewish high school was founded during the First World War.In the last decades of Tsarist rule, many Siedlce activists (both Polish and Jewish) took part in the 1905 Revolution. After a series of attacks on Russians in all of Poland during the Bloody Wednesday (15 August 1906) the Russian authorities organized a pogrom in Siedlce as a reprisal on 8–10 September 1906,[2][3][4][5] in which 26 Jews perished.In the last decades of Tsarist rule, many Siedlce activists (both Polish and Jewish) took part in the 1905 Revolution. After a series of attacks on Russians in all of Poland during the Bloody Wednesday (15 August 1906) the Russian authorities organized a pogrom in Siedlce as a reprisal on 8–10 September 1906,[2][3][4][5] in which 26 Jews perished.The Siedlce Jewish community was not restored after Nazi defeat, and the town's later history lacked the hitherto conspicuous Jewish component. Survivors of the town's population established an association in Israel which in 1956 published a comprehensive memorial book on the community's history.[6] Y. Kravitz, one of the survivors, published in 1971 his memoires entitled "Five Years of Living Hell under Nazi Rule in the City of Siedlce".[7]Richard Burgin - a Jewish composer who attended St. Petersburg Conservatory and became the concert master for the Boston Symphony Orchestra.Vladimir Chelomei - Soviet Academician and scientist in the field of mechanics and control processes; Designer of missiles, spacecraft, and space stations; Founder and the General Constructor of OKB-52 (now NPO Mashinostroyenia).Vladimir Nikolayevich Chelomey (Ukrainian: Володимир Миколайович Челомей; Russian:Влади́мир Никола́евич Челоме́й; 30 June 1914—8 December 1984) was a Soviet mechanicsscientist and rocket engineer from Ukraine.
Early life
Chelomey was born in Siedlce, Russian Empire (now Poland) into a Ukrainian family. At the age of three months, his family fled to Poltava, when World War I came close to Siedlce.When Vladimir was twelve years old, the family moved again to Kiev.In 1932, Chelomey was admitted to the Kiev Polytechnic Institute (later the basis of Kiev Aviation Institute), where he showed himself as a student with outstanding talent. In 1936, his first bookVector Analysis was published. Studying at the institute, Chelomey also attended lectures onmathematical analysis, theory of differential equations, mathematical physics, theory of elasticityand mechanics in the Kiev University. He also attended lectures by Tullio Levi-Civita in theUkrainian SSR Academy of Sciences. Namely in this time Chelomey became interested inmechanics and in the theory of oscillations and remained interested the rest of his life. In 1937, Chelomey graduated from the institute with honours. After that he worked there as a lecturer, defending a dissertation for the Candidate of Science (in 1939).Zabel Yesayan was born on the night of February 4, 1878 as Zabel Hovhannessian, daughter of Mkrtich Hovhannessian in the Silihdar neighborhood of Üsküdar during the height of the Russo-Turkish war.[1] That night the Russian army reached San Stefano, now known as Yeşilköy. The house she was born into was a reddish, two-story wooden structure.[2] She attended the local Surp Haç Tbrevank school (a school which is still in operation today). She managed to study literature and philosophy at the Sorbonne University in Paris, France. After getting inspired by the French Romantic movement and the Armenian literary scene, she began her prolific writing career. Her first prose poem ("Night Song") appeared in Arshak Chobanian periodical Tsaghik(Flower) in 1895. She went on the publish short stories, literary essays, articles, and translations (in both French and Armenian) in such periodicals as Mercure de France, Massis, Anahit, andArevelian Mamoul (Eastern Press).[3]Azerbaijan is a unitary constitutional republic. It is one of the six independent Turkic states, being an active member of the Turkic Council and the TÜRKSOY community. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations.[13] It is one of the founding members of GUAM, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)[14] andOrganization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. A member of the United Nations since 1992, Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established Human Rights Council by the United Nations General Assembly on May 9, 2006 (the term of office began on June 19, 2006).[15] The country is also a member of the OSCE, the Council of Europe, and the NATOPartnership for Peace (PfP) program. Azerbaijan is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union and member of the Non-Aligned Movement and holds observer status in World Trade Organization.[13][16]The Apadana Palace, northern stairway (detail) - ancient 5th-century BCE bas-relief shows a Mede soldier in traditional Mede costume (behind Persian archer)
Vladimir Putin with his mother, Maria Ivanovna, in July 1958; two years before Putina claims he was sent to his grandparents in Russia.The official line is that Mr Putin's parents were already in their forties when Mr Putin was born, which leaves a gap of over fifteen years since the births of their previous sons, Oleg and Viktor, neither of whom survived childhood. Details of the first ten years of Mr Putin's life are scarce in his autobiography, especially when compared with other world leaders."[2]Putina lives in the village of Metekhi, about 18 kilometers from Gori, Georgia. Putina says that Putin's father is a Russian mechanic, Platon Privalov, who got Vera pregnant while he was married to another woman. A "Vladmir Putin" was registered at Metekhi school in 1959-1960. Records show that his stated nationality is Georgian.[2]Vera married a Georgian soldier Giorgi Osepahvili. Her husband pressured Vera to abandon Putin.[1][2][3] In December 1960 she delivered "Vova" back to his grandparents in Russia. Putina believes that the St. Petersburg-based "parents" referred to in Putin's official biography adopted her son from his grandparents.[1][2][3]
The Great Purge was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union orchestrated byJoseph Stalin from 1934 to 1939.[1] It involved a large-scale purge of the Communist Party and government officials, repression of peasants and the Red Army leadership, and widespread police surveillance, suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and arbitrary executions.[2] In Russian historiography the period of the most intense purge, 1937–1938, is calledYezhovshchina (Russian: Eжовщина; literally, the Yezhov regime), after Nikolai Yezhov, the head of the Soviet secret police, NKVD.According to Nikita Khrushchev's 1956 speech, "On the Personality Cult and its Consequences," and more recent findings, a great number of accusations, notably those presented at the Moscow show trials, were based on forced confessions, often obtained by torture,[4] and on loose interpretations of Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code, which dealt with counter-revolutionary crimes. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was often largely replaced with summary proceedings by NKVD troikas.[5]From 1930 onwards, the Party and police officials feared the “social disorder” caused by the upheavals of forced collectivization of peasants and the resulting famine of 1932–1933, as well as the massive and uncontrolled migration of millions of peasants into cities. The threat of war heightened Stalin’s perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the potential source of an uprising in case of invasion. He began to plan for the preventive elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical “fifth column of wreckers, terrorists and spies.” (Hagenloh, 2000; Shearer, 2003).[8]Nikolaev was a troubled young Soviet Communist Party member in Leningrad. He was a small, thin man, about five feet tall; even as an adult he showed the effects of childhood malnutrition. He had difficulty holding a job, and had been reprimanded by the Party for having refused a posting that was not to his liking. Eventually, the Party expelled him as a member. Unemployed, he soon ran short of money, and blamed the Party for his troubles. His wife Milda Draule was a member of a regional party committee and he had a strong suspicion that she had love affair with Kirov.Nikolaev was a troubled young Soviet Communist Party member in Leningrad. He was a small, thin man, about five feet tall; even as an adult he showed the effects of childhood malnutrition. He had difficulty holding a job, and had been reprimanded by the Party for having refused a posting that was not to his liking. Eventually, the Party expelled him as a member. Unemployed, he soon ran short of money, and blamed the Party for his troubles. His wife Milda Draule was a member of a regional party committee and he had a strong suspicion that she had love affair with Kirov.
The Great Purge was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union orchestrated byJoseph Stalin from 1934 to 1939.[1] It involved a large-scale purge of the Communist Party and government officials, repression of peasants and the Red Army leadership, and widespread police surveillance, suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and arbitrary executions.[2] In Russian historiography the period of the most intense purge, 1937–1938, is calledYezhovshchina (Russian: Eжовщина; literally, the Yezhov regime), after Nikolai Yezhov, the head of the Soviet secret police, NKVD.In the Western world, Robert Conquest's 1968 book The Great Terror popularized that phrase. Conquest's title was in turn inspired by the period of terror (French: la Terreur) during the French Revolution.Yezhov was born in Saint Petersburg, according to his official Soviet biography, though other records[specify] point to the possibility that he may have been born in the town of Marijampolė,Lithuania (half[5] the population was Jewish at that time). In a form filled out in 1921, Yezhov claimed some ability to speak Polish and Lithuanian.In the "Letter of an Old Bolshevik" (1936), written by Boris Nicolaevsky, there is this contemporary description of Yezhov:In the whole of my long life, I have never met a more repellent personality than Yezhov's. When I look at him I am reminded irresistibly of the wicked urchins of the courts in Rasterayeva Street, whose favorite occupation was to tie a piece of paper dipped in kerosene to a cat's tail, set fire to it, and then watch with delight how the terrified animal would tear down the street, trying desperately but in vain to escape the approaching flames. I do not doubt that in his childhood Yezhov amused himself in just such a manner and that he is now continuing to do so in different forms.Nadezhda Mandelstam, in contrast, who met Yezhov at Sukhum in the early thirties, did not perceive anything ominous in his manner or appearance; her impression of him was that of a 'modest and rather agreeable person'.[7] Physically, Yezhov was short in stature, standing five feet (151 cm), and that, combined with his sadistic personality, led to his nickname 'The Poisonous Dwarf' or 'The Bloody Dwarf'.Yezhov married educated and sincerely Marxist Antonia Titova in 1919, but he later divorced her and married Yevgenia Feigenburg (Khautina-Ezhova).[8] Yezhov and Feigenburg had an adopted daughter, Natasha, an orphan from a children's home.On April 10, he was arrested and imprisoned at the Sukhanovka prison; the "arrest was painstakingly concealed, not only from the general public but also from most NKVD officers... It would not do to make a fuss about the arrest of 'the leader’s favourite,' and Stalin had no desire to arouse public interest in NKVD activity and the circumstances of the conduct of the Great Terror."[24] Amongst his main accusations the former "Narkom" was accused in accordance with Article 154 of the Soviet Criminal Code ("sodomy, committed with violence or the use of the dependent status of the victim").[25][26][27]Yezhov supposedly broke quickly under torture, and confessed to the standard litany of state crimes necessary to mark him as an "enemy of the people" prior to execution, including "wrecking", official incompetence, theft of government funds, and treasonous collaboration with German spies and saboteurs, none of which were likely or supported by evidence. Apart from these unlikely political crimes, he also confessed to a humiliating history of sexual promiscuity, including homosexuality, that was (unusually, in contrast with other condemned Bolshevik officials) later corroborated by witness reports and deemed mostly true in post-Soviet examinations of the case.[28]Among the many people dragged down in Yezhov's fall was Isaak Babel: "In May 1939 Ezhov confessed that Babel had committed espionage together with [Yezhov's wife] Yevgenia. Within a week the writer was arrested; during interrogation he in his turn testified against the Ezhovs."[29]However, Yezhov's first wife, Antonia Titova, his sister, Evdokiia, and his mother all survived.[30]Just before the execution, Yezhov was ordered to undress himself and then was brutally beaten by guards at the order of Beria, the new NKVD chief, just as Yezhov had ordered the guards to beat and humiliate his predecessor Yagoda before Yagoda's execution only two years before.[citation needed] Yezhov had to be carried into the execution chamber semi-conscious, coughing and weeping uncontrollably.On February 4, he was executed by the future KGB chairman Ivan Serov (or by Blokhin, in the presence of N. P. Afanasev, according to one book source) in the basement of a small NKVD station on Varsonofevskii Lane in Moscow. The main NKVD execution chamber in the basement of the Lubyanka was deliberately avoided to ensure total secrecy.[34]His body was immediately cremated and his ashes dumped in a common grave at Moscow'sDonskoi Cemetery.[35] The execution remained secret, and as late as 1948, Time reported that “[s]ome think he is still in an insane asylum.″[36]Yezhov's refusal to admit to a conspiracy against Stalin's life and his long, verifiable history as Stalin's primary inquisitor during the Great Purge made him too dangerous to risk at a public show trial where he might betray Stalin's secrets or successfully expose Stalin's orchestration of the Purge.[37]In addition, the scapegoating of Yezhov allowed Stalin to end the Great Purge while still retainingplausible deniability of his direction over it[citation needed]. This was further reinforced by Stalin's decision to declare damnatio memoriae on Yezhov, a fate normally reserved for only the highest-ranking and most prominent of Stalin's political enemies, and all evidence of his existence was quietly censored from State records and publications.[citation needed]Though his adoptive daughter Natalia Khayutina (whose birth parents were killed in theYezhovshchina) has fought for a revision of the case, Yezhov has not been rehabilitated.
NAME: Vladimir PutinOCCUPATION: World Leader, Prime MinisterBIRTH DATE: October 07, 1952 (Age: 61)EDUCATION: Leningrad State UniversityPLACE OF BIRTH: Leningrad, RussiaFULL NAME: Vladimir Vladimirovich PutinAKA: Vladimir PutinVladimir Vladimirovich Putin was born in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), Russia, on October 7, 1952. After graduating from Leningrad State University in 1975, he began his career in the KGB as an intelligence officer. Stationed mainly in East Germany, he held that position until 1989.Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Putin retired from the KGB with the rank of colonel, and returned to Leningrad as a supporter of Anatoly Sobchak (1937-2000), a liberal politician. After Sobchak won election as mayor of Leningrad (1991), Putin became his head of external relations; in 1994, Putin became Sobchak's first deputy mayor.After Sobchak's defeat in 1996, Putin resigned his post and moved to Moscow. In 1998, Putin was appointed deputy head of management under Boris Yeltsin's presidential administration. In that position, he was in charge of the Kremlin's relations with the regional governments.Shortly afterward, Putin was appointed head of the Federal Security, an arm of the former KGB, as well as head of Yeltsin's Security Council. In August 1999, Yeltsin dismissed his then-prime minister Sergey Stapashin, along with his cabinet, and promoted Putin in his place.
President of Russia: 1st and 2nd Terms
In December 1999, Boris Yeltsin resigned as president of Russia and appointed Putin acting president until official elections were held (in early 2000). In September 2001, in response to the terrorist attacks on the United States, he announced Russia's stance as a U.S. ally. Soon after, however, he announced his opposition—along with the French and German governments—to the U.S. "war on terror," which focused on ridding Iraq of its then-leader,Saddam Hussein.Putin was re-elected to the presidency in 2004. In April 2005, he made a historic visit to Israel for talks with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon—marking the first visit to Israel by any Kremlin leader.Due to term limits, Putin could not run for the presidency again in 2008. (That same year, presidential terms in Russia were extended from four to six years.) When his protégé Dmitry Medvedev succeeded him as president in March 2008, Putin secured the post of Russia's prime minister, continuing his position among the top Russian leadership after eight years at the helm. It wouldn't be long before Putin was back at the helm, however.
Third Term as President
On March 4, 2012, Vladimir Putin was re-elected to the presidency, and he was inaugurated to his third term as Russia's president on May 7, 2012. Soon after taking office, he nominated Medvedev as prime minister.In 1980, Putin met his future wife, Lyudmila, who was working as a flight attendant at the time. The couple married in 1983 and had two daughters: Maria, born in 1985, and Yekaterina, born in 1986. In early June 2013, after nearly 30 years of marriage, Russia's first couple announced that they were getting a divorce, providing little explanation for the decision, but assuring that they came to it mutually and amicably."There are people who just cannot put up with it," Putin stated. "Lyudmila Alexandrovna has stood watch for eight, almost nine years." Providing more context to the decision, Lyudmila added, "Our marriage is over because we hardly ever see each other.Putin was born on 7 October 1952, in Leningrad, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union (modern day Saint Petersburg, Russia),[28] to parents Vladimir Spiridonovich Putin (1911–1999) and Maria Ivanovna Putina (née Shelomova; 1911–1998). His mother was a factory worker, and his father was aconscript in the Soviet Navy, where he served in the submarine fleet in the early 1930s, and later served in the NKVD during World War II.[29][30][31][32] Two elder brothers were born in the mid-1930s; one died within a few months of birth, while the second succumbed to diphtheria during the siege of Leningrad in World War II.Vladimir Putin's paternal grandfather, Spiridon Ivanovich Putin (1879–1965), was employed atVladimir Lenin's dacha at Gorki as a cook, and after Lenin's death in 1924, he continued to work for Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya. He would later cook for Joseph Stalin when the Soviet leader visited one of his dachas in the Moscow region. Spiridon later was employed at a dacha belonging to the Moscow City Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, at which the young Putin would visit him.[33]The ancestry of Vladimir Putin has been described as a mystery with no records surviving of any ancestors of any people with the surname "Putin" beyond his grandfather Spiridon Ivanovich. His autobiography, Ot Pervogo Litsa (English: In the First Person),[29] which is based on Putin's interviews, speaks of humble beginnings, including early years in a communal apartment in Leningrad.Putina met Vladimir Putin in Leningrad.[1] They married on 28 July 1983;[7] they have two daughters, Maria (born 1985) and Yekaterina (Katja) (born 1986 in Dresden, East Germany). They attended the German School in Moscow (Deutsche Schule Moskau) until Putin's appointment asPrime Minister in 1999. Their photographs are not published by the Russian media, and no family portrait has ever been issued.[8]Putin was born on 7 October 1952, in Leningrad, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union (modern day Saint Petersburg, Russia),[28] to parents Vladimir Spiridonovich Putin (1911–1999) and Maria Ivanovna Putina (née Shelomova; 1911–1998). His mother was a factory worker, and his father was aconscript in the Soviet Navy, where he served in the submarine fleet in the early 1930s, and later served in the NKVD during World War II.[29][30][31][32] Two elder brothers were born in the mid-1930s; one died within a few months of birth, while the second succumbed to diphtheria during the siege of Leningrad in World War II.Vladimir Putin's paternal grandfather, Spiridon Ivanovich Putin (1879–1965), was employed atVladimir Lenin's dacha at Gorki as a cook, and after Lenin's death in 1924, he continued to work for Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya. He would later cook for Joseph Stalin when the Soviet leader visited one of his dachas in the Moscow region. Spiridon later was employed at a dacha belonging to the Moscow City Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, at which the young Putin would visit him.[33]The ancestry of Vladimir Putin has been described as a mystery with no records surviving of any ancestors of any people with the surname "Putin" beyond his grandfather Spiridon Ivanovich. His autobiography, Ot Pervogo Litsa (English: In the First Person),[29] which is based on Putin's interviews, speaks of humble beginnings, including early years in a communal apartment in Leningrad.Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербург, tr. Sankt-Peterburg, IPA: [sankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk] ( listen)) is a city and a federal subject (a federal city) of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea. In 1914 the name of the city was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd (Russian: Петроград, IPA: [pʲɪtrɐˈgrat]), in 1924 toLeningrad (Russian: Ленинград, IPA: [lʲɪnʲɪnˈgrat]), and in 1991, back to Saint Petersburg.In Russian literature, informal documents, and discourse, the "Saint" (Санкт-) is usually omitted, leaving Petersburg (Петербург, Peterburg). In common parlance Russians may drop "-burg" (-бург) as well, referring to it as Peter (Питер, Russian: [ˈpʲitʲɪr]).Saint Petersburg was founded by the Tsar Peter the Great on May 27 [O.S. 16] 1703. From 1713 to 1728 and from 1732 to 1918, Saint Petersburg was the Imperial capital of Russia. In 1918 the central government bodies moved from Saint Petersburg (then named Petrograd) to Moscow.[11]It is Russia's second largest city after Moscow with 5 million inhabitants (2012) and the fourth most populated federal subject.[6] Saint Petersburg is a major European cultural center, and also an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea.Vladimir Spiridonovich
Around the time of the jew-bolshevik revolution a young Prince Putyatin married a Romanov Grand Duchess.In 1918, they had a child, little Prince Roman Putyatin, who was bothRurik and Romanov.His grandfather was General Prince Putyatin who served Tsar Nicholas IIat the palace.They say the little Prince died in 1919 while in the care of His grandfather.Had little Prince Putyatin lived to have a son, His son would be Putin's age.Here is a photo of little Prince Putyatin's grandfather.[link to www.freeinfosociety.com]General Prince Putyatin is the man standing to Rasputin's left[with His hand on the chair.]The Russian-Masonic-Bolshevik Revolution from the evil Vatican.Freemasonry and the Russian RevolutionThis clip describes the Conspiracy of the Freemasonic order The Great East of Peoples of Russia or The Grand Orient of Russia's People for their anti-Tsarist coup that lead to the Socialist Revolution in Russia.Trotsky on Freemasonry[link to freemasonry.bcy.ca]FatimaIn 1917, the very year of the Russian Bolshevik revolution, at Fatima, the Catholics were being recruited by their priest with superstitious hysteria. Fatima message #2: "Russia would be converted to the Catholic Church."[link to www.reformation.org][link to www.reformation.org]The death brought by the satanic vatican.Soviet UnionVital StatisticsThe magnitude of human loss in the Soviet Union can be shown by estimating the 1987 population as if it had grown at a relatively modest annual rate of 1 percent from 1917 to 1987. At that rate, the population would have reached approximately 325 million citizens by the seventieth anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. Instead, that figure is expected to be reached only in 2016, a delay of more than one generation. The difference between this estimate of 325 million and the actual population in 1987 of 281 million suggests that some 45 to 50 million lives were lost in wars, famines, forced collectivization, and purges.The single most devastating event by far was World War II, commonly referred to in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War. Estimates vary, but an absolute population decline of some 20 to 25 million seems quite plausible. There were 194 million people reportedly living in the Soviet Union in 1940. Only 209 million were counted by the census of 1959 instead of the roughly 234 million that might have been expected, given a moderate rate of growth.Russian Jewish community thriving after dark pastclick videoSome revolution era footage, and Putin comments about past persecution of Jews in Russia. They even called them "Zionist".[link to rt.com]This agrees with gulag survivor written book: The First Guidebook to Prisons and Concentration Camps of the Soviet Union, by Avraham Shifrin.Other religious groups were also affected:Russian Scholar Finds Refuge in Wisconsindiamond selling Judaic and the Vatican is an accomplished Pharasaic disguise. The goddess worship, dagon hats, colored robes, and skullcaps scream this Judaic/Babylon Cabala mixture. Pharisaism is the post captivity hybrid monstrosity Jesus Christ Himself encountered and detested. It is now known as Judaism.Every ism is a blame-deflecting disguise to cover their historical crimes and the original Stalinist Communists were all from this criminal strain. We do hope Putin has rid Russia of the Rothschild overlords once and for all. Too late for the U.S.eauregard Aakre Andreas 'Andrew' Severin Hansen b. 20 Mar 1876Norway I064921PurfeerstOn the Author's paternal side of the family, the eldest Purf�rst ancestor is Johann Christoph Purf�rst who was born about 1565. During a three week research trip to Germany, record of he and his wife Elisabeth Gruber were found in an archive in the city of Plauen which is located in the current state of Thuringia. The city is also just north of the border of country now known as the Czech Republic. It is the author's belief that the family had its origin in that geographical area when it was known as Bohemia. For more details see The History of the Purf�rst's in the History and Documents section of this website, the link to which will be found on the sidebar.This couple constitutes the earliest found existence of the surname. The thousands of individuals in this data base, who subsequently have been identified with a connection to the Purf�rst surname or a variation, have been proven to be their descendants. Subsequent research of the surname and variations encompassed every known descendant and every known worldwide geographical location. The surname immigration pattern encompassed such diverse places as the American states of New York, Wisconsin, Missouri, Texas and Hawaii, to name a few, as well as to other countries of the world such as England, Canada, The Netherlands, Italy, Belgium and Sweden.The Author's Great-Grandfather Karl Friedrich Ernst Purf�rst, a.k.a., Charles Purfeerst, immigrated in 1852 and settled in Rice County, Minnesota. One of his brothers settled in adjacent Steele County, Minnesota while two other brothers lived in Fountain County, Indiana. The remaining brother, and their two sisters, lived in Essex County, New Jersey who there were eventually joined by the family parents, the Author's Great-Great-Grandparents.Selecting the Histories and Documents link from the sidebar will take you to each German city where the ancestral name was found as well as to each foreign country and each homestead in America where a descendant established initial residence.On the Author's maternal side of the family, grandmother's paternal ancestors, Johnson, left Holland and arrived at the Dutch East India settlement on the shores of Long Island, New York on December 16, 1650. Those ancestors were killed in an Indian raid on December 19, 1650 resulting in grandmother thus descending from a surviving orphaned son. Grandmother's maternal ancestors, Bostock, left England and arrived in Stratford, Fairfield County, Connecticut in 1639. Listed in William The Conqueror's infamous Domesday Book, the name is of Saxon origin and can be traced back to King Edward whose reign during 1042-1066 was the last Anglo-Saxon kings of England. American family migration eventually took descendants to the state of New York and later to Minnesota where paternal grandparents Jennie June Johnson and Harmon Francis Purfeerst met and married. For more details on grandmother's ancestors see the corresponding Johnson or Bostwick family history found in the History and Documents section of this website.Many of grandmother's ancient and medieval ancestors were granted Knighthood. One married the Countess of Lincoln whose ancestry is traced to Henry I, King of England (1068-1135) who married Matilda Edith, Princess of Scotland. By virtue of ancestral connection to occupants of the English throne and the custom of royal intermarriages between nations, the family connects to many of the European Monarchs. Because their subsequent descendants immigrated to America during its colonial period, there is also a family connection with numerous American Presidents. The documentation regarding this royalty and presidential connection, along with a tongue-in-cheek Biblical connection, will be found by selecting the Reports linkThe paternal grandparents left Minnesota in 1910 and settled in Morton County, North Dakota where, through marriage of their descendants, connection was made to the maternal grandparents William Weiss and Caroline Keller, two families also of German ancestry. The Histories and Documents section contains histories on these families as well.As indicated in the preceding, the surnames of interest have major connection to the states of Minnesota, North Dakota, Wisconsin, Indiana and Missouri. Coupled with migration patterns which took family members to adjoining states, a vast portion of the data base thus centers around mid-western United States. As western portions on the country opened for settlement, migration ultimately moved through the northern tier of states and throughout the west coast.Purfürst Genealogy
Anglicized variations of PURFURST, PURFUERST and PURFEERST.The data base also reflects considerable research on maternal ancestral surnames of Keller, Weiss, Johnson and Bostwick plus the spousal maiden name of Tanguay.
LAGIMONIÈRE (Lagimodière, Lajimonière, Lavimaudier, Lavimodière), JEAN-BAPTISTE, fur trader and farmer; b. 25 Dec. 1778 probably in Saint-Antoine-sur-Richelieu, Que., son of Jean-Baptiste Lagimonière, a farmer, and Marie-Joseph (Josephte) Jarret, dit Beauregard; d. 7 Sept. 1855 in St Boniface (Man.).Jean-Baptiste Lagimonière lived in Saint-Antoine-sur-Richelieu, and then at Maskinongé where his father had settled in 1790. Around 1800 he went into the fur trade in the northwest as a voyageur. He spent several years in the territory to the west of Grand Portage (near Grand Portage, Minn.), probably in the employ of the North West Company. It is believed that he married an Indian woman à la façon du pays, and that they had three daughters.Lagimonière was back with his family in Maskinongé in 1805. There he met Marie-Anne Gaboury*, and they were married on 21 April 1806. Shortly after, he was again seized by the urge to travel, and set off with his new wife for the northwest. They reached Fort Daer (Pembina, N.Dak.) towards the end of August and spent the winter there; on 6 Jan. 1807 Marie-Anne gave birth to their first child, a girl they named Reine. In the spring the Lagimonières moved from Fort Daer to Fort Augustus (Edmonton) along with three French Canadians and their families. They lived in this area, where the Hudson’s Bay Company and the NWC each maintained a trading-post, for four years. With his family, Lagimonière took part in numerous expeditions hunting buffalo and beaver, leading the life of a true “free man.” He and others kept the French Canadian and British fur traders supplied with meat, in addition to providing furs that were properly prepared, thanks to a knowledge of trading standards not possessed by the Indians.In 1811 the Lagimonière family set off for the forks of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, after learning that Lord Selkirk [Douglas*], a Scot and a shareholder of the HBC, planned to establish a farming settlement there. They spent the winter at Fort Daer, and in the spring of 1812 went to make a permanent home in the Red River colony (Man.). Lagimonière, however, continued to live a hunter’s life, and between 1812 and 1815 was hired several times by Miles Macdonell*, the colony’s governor, to supply the settlers with food. He spent the winters with his family on the Assiniboine, near Portage la Prairie.During these years, the intense rivalry between the HBC and the NWC, which were both seeking to control the fur trade, led to violent clashes at Red River and to the eviction of the settlers on the impetus of the NWC in June 1815 [see Archibald McDonald]. After the settlers returned in August 1815, Colin Robertson*, the HBC agent in the colony, hired Lagimonière to carry dispatches to Lord Selkirk, who was in Montreal. On 17 Oct. 1815, accompanied by Bénoni Marier, an employee of the company, and by an Indian guide, he left the colony on foot. Venturing on a route mainly through NWC territory to the south of Lake Superior, he then proceeded by way of Sault Ste Marie (Ont.) and York (Toronto). On 10 March 1816, at the end of his 1,800-mile journey, he handed the dispatches over to Lord Selkirk. Armed with Selkirk’s replies, he set out on the same route at the end of March. But this time the NWC principals were determined not to let him get through, and during the night of 16 June 1816 Lagimonière and his companions were seized near Fond du Lac (Superior, Wis.) by Indians acting on the orders of one of the partners, Archibald Norman McLeod*. They were stripped of their personal belongings and Selkirk’s dispatches, escorted to Fort William (Thunder Bay, Ont.), and then released. Without provisions or the means to subsist, Lagimonière and his companions pushed on towards Red River. At the beginning of July they received help from Pierre-Paul Lacroix, who found them on a bank of the Rainy River to the west of Fort Frances (Ont.). Lagimonière then went to Red River, which he probably reached during the summer of 1816.After this exploit, Lagimonière served as messenger for the HBC on many occasions, as did his sons. He also began to farm some land that Selkirk is said to have granted him for his services. It was on this land, which was at the mouth of the Seine River, that he built a home where he brought up his family of four girls and four boys. In 1844 his daughter Julie married a neighbour, Louis Riel*, and later that year gave birth to a son, Louis*, who was to become the principal leader of the Métis during the events surrounding the entry of Manitoba into confederation. In the 1830s and 1840s Lagimonière, with the help of his four sons, was one of the most prosperous farmers in the Red River settlement. He continued to engage in the fur trade, and with other settlers such as Cuthbert Grant and Louis Guiboche was also active in the carrying trade.Jean-Baptiste Lagimonière’s journey to Montreal in 1815–16 made him a celebrity, but he also deserves note as one of the first French Canadians to settle permanently in the northwest.
RAYNES John Crawshaw: Sergeant. Royal Field Artillery. British Army. Citation: On 11 October 1915 at Fosse 7 de Bethune, France, Sergeant Raynes went to the assistance of another sergeant who was lying wounded. He bandaged the injured man and returned to his gun, then, when the battery ceased firing, carried the wounded man to a dug-out and when gas shelling started, put his own gas helmet on his injured comrade and, badly gassed himself, went back to his gun. The next day he was buried, with others, under a house which had been shelled. As soon as he had been extricated he insisted on helping to rescue the others, then, having had his wounds dressed, reported for duty.
NAULT, ANDRÉ, buffalo hunter, farmer, and captain of the Métis; b. 20 April 1830 in Point Douglas (Winnipeg), son of Amable Nault and Josette (Josephite, Josephte) Lagimodière, known as La Cyprès; grandson of Jean-Baptiste Lagimonière* and Marie-Anne Gaboury*; m. 11 Jan. 1850 Anastasie Landry, and they had 14 children; d. 17 Dec. 1924 in St Vital, Man.Although André Nault's parents were of French Canadian origin, they had become integrated into the Métis community of the Red River settlement (Man.). As a young man, Nault accompanied his father on buffalo hunts to the Missouri plateau, excelling as a horseman and hunter. He obtained river lot 12 in St Vital and farmed there. On 17 May 1849, at age 19, he supported the Métis drive for free trade at the famous trial of Pierre-Guillaume Sayer* by marching "with a rifle at his shoulder." Judge and historian Louis-Arthur Prud'homme*states that this episode was his apprenticeship as a "defender of the rights and liberties of the country's population."The first event of the Métis resistance of 1869-70 to the transfer of Rupert's Land to the Canadian government was the stopping of the surveyors on 11 Oct. 1869. Oral history suggests that this event occurred on Nault's river lot in St Vital, but the notebook of surveyor Adam Clark Webbe would seem to indicate that it was on an adjoining lot. Nault's first name is not listed among those of the seven Naults who were present, but the one nicknamed Nanin is assumed to have been him. On the arrival of the surveyors, Nault is said to have gone for his first cousin Métis leader Louis Riel*, who spoke English. It seems likely that Nault played a significant role on this occasion since oral accounts of the event link it to his property.According to Nault, at a meeting of the Métis on 21 Oct. 1869 Riel ordered him to construct a barrier at St Norbert to prevent the lieutenant governor designate, William McDougall*, from entering the Red River settlement or bringing in arms. Nault had about 250 to 300 men with him. On 1 November he and his brother Benjamin forced McDougall's representatives, Captain Donald Roderick Cameron and Joseph-Alfred-NorbertProvencher*, to return to Pembina (N.Dak.). The following day, under Riel's orders, he and his men captured Upper Fort Garry (Winnipeg) to prevent it from falling into the hands of John Christian Schultz* and his Canadian supporters. From 4 to 23 Dec. 1869 Nault occupied Fort Pembina, the HBC post just north of the international border, to watch the activities of McDougall. When McDougall headed back east, Nault returned to the Red River settlement.Prud'homme argues that in Riel's provisional government Nault was probably fourth in line of importance after Riel, Ambroise-Dydime Lépine, and Elzéar Goulet*. Nault was a member of the court martial that on 3 March 1870 tried Thomas Scott*, an Ontarian captured in mid February. Scott had proved to be a particularly troublesome prisoner and was sentenced to execution. Nault, who commanded the Métis firing squad, would report in 1923 to historian Auguste-Henri de Trémaudan that Scott "did not believe that we would have the pluck, as he called it, to go the whole length and to shoot him." Scott "would pledge his word to keep the peace in order to be released, then break it as soon as he was free. We had no desire whatever to put him to death, he simply forced us to it."After troops arrived in August 1870 under the command of Colonel Garnet Joseph Wolseley*, numerous Métis suffered reprisals. In February 1871 Nault was attacked by soldiers at Pembina and left for dead. Prud'homme observed that he carried the scar from this brutal incident until his death. Later in 1871 Nault played a significant role in obtaining information for Riel and the Métis on the movements of William BernardO'Donoghue*, who had asked Métis leaders, Nault included, for support in attacking Manitoba with a band of Fenians. Nault and Jean-Baptiste Lépine* went to Pembina on 2 October and returned four days later to report that O'Donoghue was planning to attack Fort Pembina before approaching Fort Garry. The Métis under Riel stayed loyal to Canada and did not join O'Donoghue.In late 1871 Riel suggested the formation of an association of Métis to maintain their influence in the Red River parishes and he looked to Nault as one of the "principal Métis." Nault was named a councillor of the new organization, the Union Saint-Alexandre. Despite the hopes of Métis leaders that their demonstration of loyalty in protecting the colony against the Fenians would help them obtain amnesty for acts carried out during the resistance, they remained disappointed. Nault was arrested in February 1874. He stood trial for the murder of Scott the following November, but the jury was unable to reach a verdict. He was in prison awaiting a second trial when the government of Alexander Mackenzie* granted a full amnesty to all except Riel, A. D. Lépine, and O'Donoghue in February 1875. His imprisonment left him with heart and lung problems. After his release he returned to his St Vital farm, where he would live until age 94. He took no part in the events of 1885 in Saskatchewan [see Riel], but three of his sons did. He became a member of the Union Nationale Métisse Saint-Joseph du Manitoba, established in 1887 to preserve Métis heritage and culture. An example of his efforts to collect and document Métis history was his donation in 1910 of the original flag of the Union Nationale Métisse to the organization; it is now preserved in the Heritage Centre of the Société Historique de Saint-Boniface. The Métis and francophone communities of Manitoba and André Nault's numerous descendants continue to honour the memory of this man who was an eye-witness to, and participant in, many stirring events.
Metis André NaultAndré Nault, Métis leader (b at Point Douglas, Red River Colony 1829; d at St Vital, Man 1924). Although a kinsman of Louis RIEL and always considered a Métis, Nault was not of mixed blood. Interference with his hay privileges by surveyors provoked the first armed resistance in the North-West in 1869. During the rebellion of 1870 he was in charge of the party that seized Fort Garry, and he sat on the council that condemned Thomas SCOTT on 3 Mar 1870. Nault commanded the firing squad the next day. Chased across the border and left for dead by Orangemen shortly after the Canadian takeover, Nault returned to St Vital and in 1873 was arrested with Ambroise Lépine for Scott's murder. Unlike Lépine he was not tried and was pardoned as part of the general amnesty of 1875.The French speaking, Catholic Métis feared an invasion of English Speaking Protestants from from Ontario. In addition to the problems of language and religion, the Métis who were squatters or settlers without title were afraid of losing their lands.During the summer of 1869, the Canadian Government sent John Stoughton Dennis to Red River to survey the land. A less than warm welcome by the Métis prompted Dennis to begin his survey work at Oak Point rather than Fort Garry. That the land was surveyed Ontario style, in squares, rather than with the system of long, narrow lots with river frontage used by the Métis only added to their anxiety. The Ontario system cut across existing properties and moreover, surveying had begun before the land had been officially transferred to Canada. When Dennis and his crew arrived in Fort Garry on October 11, 1869, eighteen Métis led by Louis Riel stopped the crew of surveyors on the property of Louis' cousin, Andre Nault, and proclaimed the Canadian Government had no right to act without their permission. This act was significant for two reasons. One – it was the first act of resistance to the transfer of the settlement to Canada and two, it established Louis Riel as a champion of the Métis and Métis rights.1869 The Red River Rebellion commences in Manitoba when Canadian surveyor Adam Clark Webb and his crew try to mark off a long farm field belonging to Metis André Nault. Nault asked them to leave and they refused. Metis then intervened, without arms, and compelled the surveyors to depart.
Hesse-Nassau Province (German: Provinz Hessen-Nassau) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1868 to 1918, then a province of the Free State of Prussia until 1944.Hesse-Nassau was created as a consequence of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 by combining the previously independent Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), the Duchy of Nassau, the Free City of Frankfurt, areas gained from the Kingdom of Bavaria, and areas gained from the Grand Duchy of Hesse (Hesse-Darmstadt; including part of the former Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg). These regions were combined to form the province Hesse-Nassau in 1868 with its capital inKassel and redivided into two administrative regions: Kassel and Wiesbaden.On 1 April 1929, the Free State of Waldeck became a part of Hesse-Nassau after a popular vote and became part of the Kassel administrative region.In 1935, the Nazi government abolished (de facto) all states, so the provinces held little meaning. In 1944, Hesse-Nassau was split into the provinces of Kurhessen (capital in Kassel) and Nassau(capital in Wiesbaden). In 1945, after the end of World War II, these two provinces were merged and combined with the neighbouring Hesse-Darmstadt to form the northern and western part of the newly founded state of Hesse. Parts of Nassau were also moved into the Rhineland-Palatinate.
The Kingdom of Prussia (German: Königreich Preußen) was a German kingdom that included parts of Poland, Russia, Lithuania, Denmark, Belgium and the Czech Republic from 1701 to 1918. It was the driving force behind the 1871 unification of Germany, know as the German Empire, until its defeat in World War I. It took its name from the territory of Prussia, although its power base was Brandenburg. Its capital was Berlin.Prussia was a great power since its foundation as a kingdom, though it became a military power as a duchy under the Great Elector.[3][4][5][6]Prussia is reckoned as the legal predecessor of the unified German Reich of 1871 to 1945, and a linear ancestor of the current German state.In 1529, the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg had secured the reversion to the Duchy of Pomeraniaafter a series of conflicts, and acquired its eastern part following the Peace of Westphalia.From 1618, the Electorate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia were ruled in personal unionby the House of Hohenzollern ("Brandenburg-Prussia"). Brandenburg was a state of the Holy Roman Empire, while Prussia was a fief of Poland. In the course of the Second Northern War, the treaties of Labiau and Wehlau-Bromberg granted the Hohenzollerns sovereignty over the Prussian duchy.In return for an alliance against France in the War of the Spanish Succession, Elector Frederick III crowned himself "King in Prussia" as Frederick I in 1701. Legally, no kingdoms could exist in the Holy Roman Empire except for Bohemia. However, Frederick took the line that since Prussia had never belonged to the Empire and the Hohenzollerns were fully sovereign over it, he could elevate Prussia to a kingdom.The title "King in Prussia" was adopted to acknowledge that the Hohenzollerns were legally kings only in their former duchy. In Brandenburg and the portions of their domains that were still part of the Empire, they were still legally only electors. However, by this time the emperor's authority was only nominal. The rulers of the empire's various territories acted largely as the rulers of sovereign states, and only acknowledged the emperor's overlordship in a formal way. Hence, while Brandenburg remained part of the empire until its end in 1806, from 1701 onward it was treated as de facto part of the kingdom. However, due to the legal fiction that the Hohenzollerns were still subjects of the emperor within the parts of their domains that were part of the empire, they continued to use the additional title of Elector of Brandenburg until the empire ceased. It was not until 1772 that the title was changed to "King of Prussia".
1701–1721: Results of Thirty-Years War & The Great Northern War
The Kingdom of Prussia was poor in natural resources and devastated from the Thirty Years' War. Its territory was disjointed. It stretched 1,200 km (750 mi): from the lands of the Duchy of Prussia on the south-east coast of the Baltic Sea to the Hohenzollern heartland of Brandenburg, and the exclaves of Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg in the Rhineland. In 1708, about one third of the population of the Duchy of Prussia died of bubonic plague.[7] The plague reached Prenzlau in August 1710, but receded before it could reach the capital Berlin, which was only 80 km (50 mi) away.Sweden's defeat by Russia, Saxony, Poland, Denmark–Norway, Hanover, and Prussia in the Great Northern War (1700–1721) marked the end of significant Swedish power on the southern shores of the Baltic Sea. In the course of the Pomeranian campaign and by the Prusso-Swedish Treaty of Stockholm (January 1720), Prussia gained southern Swedish Pomerania with Stettin (Szczecin).The Great Elector incorporated the Junkers, the landed aristocracy, into his empire's bureaucracy and military machine. A vested interest in the Prussian Army and compulsory education.[8] King Frederick William I inaugurated the Prussian compulsory system in 1717.[8]
1740–1760: Silesian Wars
Main article: Silesian WarsIn 1740, King Frederick II (Frederick the Great) came to the throne. Using the pretext of a 1537 treaty (vetoed by Emperor Ferdinand I) by which parts of Silesia were to pass to Brandenburgafter the extinction of its ruling Piast dynasty, Frederick invaded Silesia, thereby beginning theWar of the Austrian Succession. After rapidly occupying Silesia, Frederick offered to protect Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria if the province were turned over to him. The offer was rejected, but Austria faced several other opponents, and Frederick was eventually able to gain formal cession with the Treaty of Berlin in 1742.To the surprise of many, Austria managed to renew the war successfully. In 1744, Frederick invaded again to forestall reprisals and to claim, this time, the province of Bohemia. He failed, butFrench pressure on Austria's ally Great Britain led to a series of treaties and compromises, culminating in the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that restored peace and left Prussia in possession of most of Silesia.Humiliated by the cession of Silesia, Austria worked to secure an alliance with France and Russia (the "Diplomatic Revolution"), while Prussia drifted into Great Britain's camp forming the Anglo-Prussian Alliance. When Frederick preemptively invaded Saxony and Bohemia over the course of a few months in 1756–1757, he initiated the Seven Years' War which might also be considered the first world war since it was fought in the three continents (France and Great Britain's colonies).This war was a desperate struggle for the Prussian Army, and the fact that it managed to fight much of Europe to a draw bears witness to Frederick's military skills. Facing Austria, Russia, France, and Sweden simultaneously, and with only Hanover (and the non-continental British) as notable allies, Frederick managed to prevent serious invasion until October 1760, when the Russian army briefly occupied Berlin and Königsberg. The situation became progressively grimmer, however, until the death of Empress Elizabeth of Russia (Miracle of the House of Brandenburg). The accession of the Prussophile Peter III relieved the pressure on the eastern front. Sweden also exited the war at about the same time.Defeating the Austrian army at the Battle of Burkersdorf and relying on continuing British success against France in the war's colonial theatres, Prussia was finally able to force a status quo ante bellum on the continent. This result confirmed Prussia's major role within the German states and established the country as a European great power. Frederick, appalled by the near-defeat of Prussia, lived out his days as a much more peaceable ruler.
1772, 1793, and 1795: Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
History of Brandenburg and PrussiaTo the east and south of Prussia, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had gradually weakened during the 18th century. Alarmed by increasing Russian influences in Polish affairs and by a possible expansion of the Russian Empire, Frederick was instrumental in initiating the first of thePartitions of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772 to maintain a balance of power.[citation needed] The Kingdom of Prussia annexed most of the Polish province of Royal Prussia, including Warmia; the annexed land was organized the following year into the Province of West Prussia. The new territory connected the Province of East Prussia (the territory previously known as the Duchy of Prussia) with the Province of Pomerania, uniting the kingdom's eastern territories.After Frederick died in 1786, his nephew Fredrick William II continued the partitions, gaining a large part of western Poland in 1793.In 1795, the Kingdom of Poland ceased to exist and a large area (including Warsaw) to the south of East Prussia became part of Prussia. These new territories were organized into the Provinces of New Silesia, South Prussia, and New East Prussia.
1801–1815: Napoleonic Wars
Main article: Napoleonic WarsThe Treaty of Basel (1795) ended the War of the First Coalition against France. In it, the First French Republic and Prussia had stipulated that the latter would ensure the Holy Roman Empire's neutrality in all the latter's territories north of the demarcation line of the river Main, including the British continental dominions of the Electorate of Hanover and the Duchies of Bremen-Verden. To this end, Hanover (including Bremen-Verden) also had to provide troops for the so-calleddemarcation army maintaining this state of armed neutrality.In the course of the War of the Second Coalition against France (1799–1802) Napoleon Bonaparte urged Prussia to occupy the continental British dominions. In 1801, 24,000 Prussian soldiers invaded, surprising Hanover, which surrendered without a fight. In April 1801, the Prussian troops arrived in Bremen-Verden's capital Stade and stayed there until October of the same year. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland first ignored Prussia's hostility, but when it joined the pro-French coalition of armed "neutral" powers such as Denmark–Norway and Russia, Britain started to capture Prussian sea vessels. After the Battle of Copenhagen (1801) the coalition fell apart and Prussia withdrew again its troops.At Napoleon's instigation, Prussia recaptured British Hanover and Bremen-Verden in early 1806. On August 6 of the same year, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved as a result of Napoléon's victories over Austria. The title of Kurfürst (Prince-elector) of Brandenburg became meaningless, and was dropped. Nonetheless, Frederick William III was now de jure as well as de factosovereign of all of the Hohenzollern domains.[9] Before this time, the Hohenzollern sovereign had held many titles and crowns, from Supreme Governor of the Protestant Churches (summus episcopus) to King, Elector, Grand Duke, Duke for the various regions and realms under his rule. After 1806, he was simply King of Prussia and summus episcopus.But when Prussia, after it turned against the French Empire, was defeated in the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt (October 14, 1806), Frederick William III was forced to temporarily flee to remoteMemel. After the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807, Prussia lost about half of its territory, including the land gained from the Second and Third Partitions of Poland (which now fell to the Duchy of Warsaw) and all land west of the Elbe River. France recaptured Prussian-occupied Hanover, including Bremen-Verden. The remainder of the kingdom was occupied by French troops (at Prussia's expense) and the king was obliged to make an alliance with France and join theContinental System.After the defeat of Napoleon in Russia, Prussia quit the alliance and took part in the Sixth Coalition during the "Wars of Liberation" (Befreiungskriege) against the French occupation. Prussian troops under Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher contributed crucially in the Battle of Waterloo of 1815 to the final victory over Napoleon.
1815: After Napoleon
Prussia’s reward for its part in France's defeat came at the Congress of Vienna, where Prussia was granted most of its lost territories and considerably more, including 40% of the Kingdom of Saxony and much of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Much of the territory annexed in the Third Partition of Poland was granted to Congress Poland under Russian rule.With these Prussian gains in territory, the kingdom was reorganised into ten provinces. Most of the kingdom, aside from the Provinces of East Prussia, West Prussia, and Posen, became part of the new German Confederation, a confederacy of 39 sovereign states replacing the defunct Holy Roman Empire.Frederick William III submitted Prussia to a number of administrative reforms, among others reorganising the government by way of ministries, which remained formative for the following hundred years.As to religion, reformed Calvinist Frederick William III—as Supreme Governor of the ProtestantChurches—asserted his long-cherished project (started in 1798) to unite the Lutheran and theReformed Church in 1817, (see Prussian Union). The Calvinist minority, strongly supported by its co-religionist Frederick William III, and the partially reluctant Lutheran majority formed the unitedProtestant Evangelical Church in Prussia. However, ensuing quarrels causing a permanentschism among the Lutherans into united and Old Lutherans by 1830.As a consequence of the Revolutions of 1848, the Principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringenand Hohenzollern-Hechingen (ruled by a Catholic cadet branch of the House of Hohenzollern) were annexed by Prussia in 1850, later united as Province of Hohenzollern.
1848–1871: German wars of unification
For the half-century that followed the Congress of Vienna, there was a conflict of ideals within theGerman Confederation between the formation of a single German nation and the conservation of the current collection of smaller German states and kingdoms. The creation of the German Customs Union (Zollverein) in 1834, which excluded the Austrian Empire, increased Prussian influence over the member states. As a consequence of the Revolutions of 1848, King Frederick William IV was offered the crown of a united Germany by the Frankfurt Parliament. Frederick William refused the offer on the grounds that revolutionary assemblies could not grant royal titles. But there were two other reasons why he refused: to do so would have done little to end the internal power struggle between Austria and Prussia, and all Prussian kings (up to and includingWilliam I) feared that the formation of a German Empire would mean the end of Prussia’s independence within the German states.In 1848, actions taken by Denmark towards the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein led to the First War of Schleswig (1848–51) between Denmark and the German Confederation. Denmark won.Frederick William issued Prussia's first constitution by his own authority in 1850. This document—moderate by the standards of the time but conservative by today's standards—provided for a two-house parliament. The lower house, or Landtag was elected by all taxpayers, who were divided into three classes whose votes were weighted according to the amount of taxes paid. Women and those who paid no taxes had no vote. This allowed just over one-third of the voters to choose 85% of the legislature, all but assuring dominance by the more well-to-do men of the population. The upper house, which was later renamed the Herrenhaus ("House of Lords"), was appointed by the king. He retained full executive authority and ministers were responsible only to him (indeed, as late as 1910, Prussian kings believed that they ruled by divine right). As a result, the grip of the landowning classes, the Junkers, remained unbroken, especially in the eastern provinces.Frederick William suffered a stroke in 1857, and his younger brother, Crown Prince Wilhelm, became regent. Wilhelm pursued a considerably more moderate course, and gained enough power that, by Frederick William's death in 1861, he was able to become king in his own right asWilliam I. However, shortly after gaining the throne, he faced a dispute with his parliament over the size of the army. The parliament, dominated by the liberals, balked at William's desire to increase the number of regiments and withheld approval of the budget to pay for its cost. A deadlock ensued, and William seriously considered abdicating in favour of his son, Crown Prince Frederick William. He was, however, persuaded to appoint as prime minister Otto von Bismarck, his ambassador to France. Bismarck took office on September 23, 1862.Although Bismarck had a reputation as an unyielding conservative, he was initially inclined to seek a compromise over the budget issue. However, William refused to consider it; he viewed defence issues as the crown's personal province. Forced into a policy of confrontation, Bismarck came up with a novel theory. Under the constitution, the king and the parliament were responsible for agreeing on the budget. Bismarck argued that since they had failed to come to an agreement, there was a "hole" in the constitution, and the government had to continue to collect taxes and disburse funds in accordance with the old budget in order to keep functioning. The government thus operated without a new budget from 1862 to 1866, allowing Bismarck to implement William's military reforms.The liberals violently denounced Bismarck for what they saw as his disregard for the fundamental law of the kingdom. However, Bismarck's real plan was an accommodation with liberalism. Although he had opposed German unification earlier in his career, he had now come to believe that it was inevitable. To his mind,the conservative forces had to take the lead in the drive toward creating a unified nation in order to keep from being eclipsed. He also believed that the middle-class liberals wanted a unified Germany more than they wanted to break the grip of the traditional forces over society. He thus embarked on a drive to create a united Germany under Prussian leadership, and guided Prussia through three wars which ultimately achieved this goal.The first of these wars was the Second War of Schleswig (1864), which Prussia initiated and succeeded in gaining the assistance of Austria. Denmark was soundly defeated and surrendered both Schleswig and Holstein, to Prussia and Austria respectively.Aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War (1866) Prussia Prussian allies: Italy and 14 German states[10] Austria Austrian allies: 11 German states[11] Neutral states: Liechtenstein, Limburg,Luxembourg, Reuss-Schleiz, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt Prussian acquisitions: Hanover,Schleswig-Holstein, Hessian Hinterland,Hesse-Kassel, Nassau and FrankfurtThe divided administration of Schleswig and Holstein then became the trigger for the Austro-Prussian War (1866 – also known as the Seven Weeks’ War), where Prussia, allied with theKingdom of Italy and various northern German states, declared war on the Austrian Empire. The Austrian-led coalition was crushed, and Prussia annexed four of its smaller allies—the Kingdom of Hanover, the Electorate of Hesse, the Duchy of Nassau and the Free City of Frankfurt. Prussia also annexed Schleswig and Holstein, and also effectively annexed Saxe-Lauenburg by forcing it into a personal union with Prussia (which was turned into a full union in 1876). King William initially wanted to take territory from Austria itself, but Bismarck persuaded him to abandon the idea. While Bismarck wanted Austria to play no future role in German affairs, he still saw that Austria could be a valuable future ally.With these gains in territory, the Prussian possessions in the Rhineland and Westphalia were connected to the rest of the kingdom for the first time. Counting the de facto annexation of Saxe-Lauenburg, Prussia now stretched uninterrupted across the northern two-thirds of Germany. It would remain at this size until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1918.Bismarck used this opportunity to end the budget dispute with parliament. He proposed a bill of indemnity granting him retroactive approval for governing without a legal budget. He guessed, correctly as it turned out, that this would lead to a split between his liberal adversaries. While some of them argued that there could be no compromise with the principle of constitutional government, most of the liberals decided to support the bill in hopes of winning more freedom in the future.The German Confederation was dissolved as part of the war. In its place, Prussia cajoled the 21 states north of the Main into forming the North German Confederation in 1867. Prussia was the dominant state in this new grouping, with four-fifths of its territory and population. Its near-total control was cemented in a constitution written by Bismarck. Executive power was vested in a president—a hereditary office of the rulers of Prussia. He was assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him. There was also a two-house parliament. The lower house, or Reichstag(Diet), was elected by universal male suffrage. The upper house, or Bundesrat (Federal Council) was appointed by the state governments. The Bundesrat was, in practice, the stronger chamber. Prussia had 17 of 43 votes, and could easily control proceedings through alliances with the other states. For all intents and purposes, the new grouping was dominated by Bismarck. He served as his own foreign minister for virtually his entire tenure as prime minister of Prussia, and in that capacity was able to instruct the Prussian delegates to the Bundesrat.The southern German states (except Austria) were forced to accept military alliances with Prussia, and Prussia began steps to merge them with the North German Confederation. Bismarck’s planned Kleindeutschland unification of Germany had come considerably closer to realisation.The final act was the Franco-Prussian War (1870), where Bismarck maneuvered EmperorNapoleon III of France into declaring war on Prussia. Activating the German alliances put in place after the Austro-Prussian War, the German states came together and swiftly defeated France. Even before then, Bismarck was able to complete the work of unifying Germany under Prussian leadership. The patriotic fervour aroused by the war with France overwhelmed the remaining opponents of a unified nation, and on 18 January 1871 (the 170th anniversary of the coronation of the first Prussian king, Frederick I), the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors atVersailles outside of Paris, while the French capital was still under siege. King William became the first emperor of a unified Germany.
1871–1918: Peak and fall
Bismarck's new empire was the most powerful state on the Continent. Prussia's dominance over the new empire was almost as absolute as it was with the North German Confederation. It included two-thirds of the empire's territory and three-fifths of its population. The imperial crown was a hereditary office of the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia also had a large plurality of seats in the Bundesrat, and as before could control the proceedings with the support of its allies in the secondary states. The Imperial Army was essentially an enlarged Prussian army, and the embassies of the new empire were mostly old Prussian embassies.However, the seeds for future problems lay in a gross disparity between the imperial and Prussian systems. The empire granted the vote to all men over 25. However, Prussia retained its restrictive three-class voting system, in which the well-to-do had 17.5 times the voting power of the rest of the population. Since the imperial chancellor was, except for two periods (January–November 1873 and 1892–94) also prime minister of Prussia, this meant that for most of the empire's existence, the king/emperor and prime minister/chancellor had to seek majorities from legislatures elected by two completely different franchises.At the time of the empire's creation, both Prussia and Germany were roughly two-thirds rural. Within 20 years, the situation was reversed; the cities and towns accounted for two-thirds of the population. However, in both the kingdom and the empire, the constituencies were never redrawn to reflect the growing population and influence of the cities and towns. This meant that rural areas were grossly overrepresented from the 1890s onward.Bismarck realised that the rest of Europe was skeptical of his powerful new Reich, and turned his attention to preserving peace with such acts as the Congress of Berlin. The new German Empire improved its already-strong relations with Britain. The ties between London and Berlin had already been sealed with a golden braid in 1858, when Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia married Princess Victoria of Britain.William I died in 1888, and the Crown Prince succeeded to the throne as Frederick III. The new emperor, a decided Anglophile, planned to transform Prussia and the empire into a more liberal and democratic monarchy on the British model. However, Frederick was already ill with inoperable throat cancer, and died after only 99 days on the throne. He was succeeded by his 29-year old son, William II. As a boy, William had rebelled against his parents' efforts to mould him as a liberal, and had become thoroughly Prussianised under Bismarck's tutelage. The new Kaiser rapidly soured relations with the British and Russian royal families (despite being closely related to them), becoming their rival and ultimately their enemy.After Prussia's victory in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, territories annexed by Prussia were reorganised into three new provinces: Hanover, Hesse-Nassau and Schleswig-Holstein.
Kingdom of Prussia; Germany and Russian territories of Roman Empire-Ottoman Empire was destroyed by 1918; Given Korea-ManchuJurechen Crimea Ottoman Khan territories were destroyed by Jew financed Meiji Jap between 1910-1945; 1933 Austrian Hitler occupies Germany at war with Russia that was its ally until 1918. Austrian jew F. DONNER becomes acquainted with Korean Prez Rhee in 1933and marry. Austrian Jew F. Donner lived in exile in Honolulu, HI until Prez Rhee died and settked in Korea until her death.
Germany was ally of Russia before 1918 destroyed it;The Kingdom of Prussia (German: Königreich Preußen) was a German kingdom that included parts of Poland, Russia, Lithuania, Denmark, Belgium and the Czech Republic from 1701 to 1918. It was the driving force behind the 1871 unification of Germany, know as the German Empire, until its defeat in World War I. It took its name from the territory of Prussia, although its power base was Brandenburg. Its capital was Berlin.Prussia was a great power since its foundation as a kingdom, though it became a military power as a duchy under the Great Elector.[3][4][5][6]Prussia is reckoned as the legal predecessor of the unified German Reich of 1871 to 1945, and a linear ancestor of the current German state.
Today part of Belgium Denmark Germany Lithuania Poland Russia^a During the North German Confederation and German Empire (1867–1918), the Minister-President of Prussia was also the Chancellor of Germany.
Prussia joined by Russia included; Holy Roman EmpireDuchy of PrussiaRoyal PrussiaFree City of DanzigSwedish PomeraniaElectorate of HesseFree City of FrankfurtDuchy of NassauKingdom of HanoverDuchy of HolsteinDuchy of SchleswigSaxe-LauenburgFree State of Prussia.
Thomas Robert Bugeaud, marquis de la Piconnerie, duc d'Isly (15 October 1784 – 10 June 1849) was a Marshal of France and Governor-General of Algeria.
Early lifeEdit
He was born at Limoges, a member of a noble family of Périgord, the youngest of thirteen children. He ran away from home, and for some years lived in the country as an agricultural worker. At the age of twenty he became a private soldier in the Vélites of the Imperial Guard, with which he took part in the Austerlitz campaign of the following year. Early in 1806, he was given a commission, and as a Second Lieutenant he served in the Jena and Eylau campaigns, winning his promotion to the rank of lieutenant at the Battle of Pultusk.In 1808, he was in the first French corps to enter Spain, and was stationed in Madrid during therevolt of the Dos Mayo. At the Second Siege of Saragossa, he won further promotion to the rank of captain, and in 1809 - 1810 found opportunities for winning distinction under Suchet in the eastern theatre of the Peninsular War, in which he rose to the rank of major and the command of a full regiment. At the first restoration he was made a colonel, but he rejoined Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and under his old chief Suchet distinguished himself in the war in the Alps.Thomas Robert Bugeaud, marquis de la Piconnerie, duc d'Isly (15 October 1784 – 10 June 1849) was a Marshal of France and Governor-General of Algeria.
Armand-Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud (August 20, 1801 – September 29, 1854) was a Frenchsoldier and Marshal of France. He served as French Minister of War until the Crimean War when he became Commander-in-chief of the army of the East.
Putyatin negotiated the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan and Russia("Treaty of Shimoda"), 7 February 1855.
Russian Diplomat Putyatin ;He led a Russian expedition to open Japan to trade, which went to England, Africa and Japan and back to Russia from 1852 to 1855, on board the frigate Pallada, commanded by Admiral Ivan Unkovsky. These efforts culminated in the signing of a commercial treaty between Russia and Japan in 1855.He arrived in Nagasaki on August 12, 1853, just one month after the first visit of Commodore Perry. Putyatin made a demonstration of a steam engine on his ship the Pallada, which led to Japan's first manufacture of a steam engine the same year under the direction of Hisashige Tanaka.In his expedition, Putyatin was accompanied by Alexander Mozhaysky and a secretary, the writerIvan Goncharov, who wrote a travelogue, The Frigate Pallada (The Frigate Pallas), published in 1858 ("Pallada" is the Russian spelling of "Pallas").
Yevfimy Vasilyevich Putyatin (Russian: Евфи́мий Васи́льевич Путя́тин) (November 8, 1803 – October 16, 1883) was a Russian admiral noted for his diplomatic missions to Japan and Chinawhich resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Shimoda in 1855.Russian Yevfimy_Putyatin fought Napoleon3rd representing French-Ottoman-Britain
During Crimea War.
Crimean war between ottoman-France vs Russia.
DateOctober 1853 – February 1856LocationCrimean Peninsula, Caucasus, Balkans, Black Sea, Baltic Sea, White Sea, Far EastResultAllied victory, Treaty of ParisBelligerents
Enemies of Russia during Crimea War were; France Ottoman Empire United Kingdom Kingdom of Sardinia.
Shkhara5,2011,365Georgia/RussiaThe table below lists some of the highest peaks of the Caucasus. With the exception of Shkhara, the heights are taken from Soviet 1:50,000 mapping. There are higher and more prominent, but nameless, peaks than some of the peaks included below.The Caucasus Mountains formed largely as the result of a tectonic plate collision between theArabian plate moving northward with respect to the Eurasian plate. The entire region is regularly subjected to strong earthquakes from this activity.[1] The Lesser Caucasus Mountains on the other hand, is largely of volcanic origin.[2] The Javakheti Volcanic Plateau in Georgia and the surrounding volcanic ranges which extend well into central Armenia are some of the youngest features of the region.In the early days of the Rurikid dynasty, the Kievan Rus' mainly traded with other tribes in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. "There was little need for complex social structures to carry out these exchanges in the forests north of the steppes. So long as the entrepreneurs operated in small numbers and kept to the north, they did not catch the attention of observers or writers." The Rus' also had strong trading ties to Byzantium, particularly in the early 900's, as treaties in 911 and 944 indicate. These treaties deal with the treatment of runaway Byzantine slaves and limitations on the amounts of certain commodities such as silk that could be bought from Byzantium. The Rus' used logs floated down the Dnieper River by Slavic tribes for the transport of goods, particularly slaves to Byzantium.[6]Their relationship further deteriorated when on 15 November, the Tsar, after seeing his pregnant daughter-in-law wearing unconventionally light clothing, physically assaulted her. Hearing her screams, the Tsarevich rushed to his wife's defense, angrily shouting, "You sent my first wife to a convent for no reason, you did the same with my second, and now you strike the third, causing the death of the son she holds in her womb". Yelena subsequently suffered a miscarriage. The Tsarevich confronted his father on the matter, only to have the topic changed to his insubordination regarding Pskov. The elder Ivan accused his son of inciting rebellion, which the younger Ivan denied, but vehemently stuck to the view that Pskov should be liberated. Angered, Ivan's father struck him on the head with his scepter. Boris Godunov, who was present at the scene, tried to intervene, but received blows himself. The younger Ivan fell, barely conscious and with a bleeding wound on his temple. The elder Ivan immediately threw himself at his son, kissing his face and trying to stop the bleeding, whilst repeatedly crying, "May I be damned! I've killed my son! I've killed my son!" The younger Ivan briefly regained consciousness and said "I die as a devoted son and most humble servant". For the next few days, the elder Ivan prayed incessantly for a miracle, but to no avail. The Tsarevich died on 19 November 1581.
False Dmitriy I appeared in history circa 1600, when he made an impression on Patriarch Job of Moscow with his learning and assurance. Tsar Boris Godunov, however, ordered him to be seized and examined, whereupon he fled to Prince Constantine Ostrogski at Ostroh, then in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and subsequently entered the service of another polonized Ruthenianfamily, the Wisniowieckis. Princes Adam and Michał Wiśniowiecki found his story to be convincing, as to who he purported to be, and it gave them an opportunity to get involved in thepolitical turmoil that was transpiring in Muscovy.There were vague rumours that Dmitriy was an illegitimate son of the Polish king, Stefan Batory, who had reigned from 1575 to 1586. According to a later tale, Dmitriy blurted out his identity when his master had slapped him in anger. Dmitriy himself claimed that his mother, the widow of Tsar Ivan, had anticipated Boris Godunov's assassination attempt and had given him into the care of a doctor who hid with him in Russian monasteries. After the doctor died, he had fled to Poland where he worked as a teacher for a brief time before coming to the service of Wisniowiecki. A number of people who had known Tsar Ivan later claimed that Dmitriy did resemble the young tsarevitch. Dmitriy displayed aristocratic skills like riding and literacy and spoke both Russian and Polish.False Dmitriy I (Cyrillic Лжедмитрий; other transliterations: Dimitri, Dimitrii, Dimitriy, Dimitry, Dmitri, Dmitrii, Dmitry) was the Tsar of Russia from 21 July 1605 until his death on 17 May 1606 under the name of Dimitriy Ioannovich (Cyrillic Димитрий Иоаннович). He is sometimes referred to under the title of Dmitriy I. He was one of three impostors (Russian: самозванец'samozvanets', "imposter") who claimed during the Time of Troubles to be the youngest son ofIvan the Terrible, tsarevitch Dmitriy Ivanovich, who had supposedly escaped a 1591 assassination attempt. It is generally believed that the real Dmitriy was assassinated in Uglichand that this False Dmitriy's real name was Grigory Otrepyev, although this is far from certain.
Rogneda of Polotsk from Belarus/Scandinavian history; raped by her husband Yaropolk I of Kiev in the presence of her parentsRagnvald or Rognvald is an Old Norse name (Old Norse Rǫgnvaldr, modern Icelandic Rögnvaldur; in Old English Rægnald and in Old Irish, Middle Irish Ragnall). Prince Vladimir mused over the incident long after, and not least for political considerations. According to the early Slavic chronicle called Tale of Bygone Years, which describes life in Kyivan Rus' up to the year 1110, he sent his envoys throughout the civilized world to judge first hand the major religions of the time, Islam, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Byzantine Orthodoxy. They were most impressed with their visit to Constantinople, saying, "We knew not whether we were in Heaven or on Earth… We only know that God dwells there among the people, and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of other nations."[cVladimir's father was prince Sviatoslav of the Rurik dynasty.[4] After the death of his father in 972, Vladimir, who was then prince of Novgorod, was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his brother Yaropolk had murdered his other brother Oleg and conquered Rus'. In Sweden, with the help from his relative Ladejarl Håkon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, he assembled a Varangianarmy and reconquered Novgorod from Yaropolk.[5] By 980 Vladimir had consolidated the Kievan realm from modern-day Ukraine to the Baltic Sea and had solidified the frontiers against incursions of Bulgarian, Baltic, and Eastern nomads. Originally a Slavic pagan, Vladimir converted to Christianity in 988[6][7][8] and Christianized the Kievan Rus'.[9]
Gromoviti znaci or thunder marks such as these are ancient symbols of Perun, which are often engraved upon roof beams of village houses, particularly in Eastern Slavic populations, to protect them from lightning bolts. It is conjectured their circular shape symbolises ball lightning.In Slavic mythology, Perun (Cyrillic: Перун) is the highest god of the pantheon and the god ofthunder and lightning. His other attributes were fire, mountains, the oak, iris, eagle, firmament (inIndo-European languages, this was joined with the notion of the sky of stone), horses and carts,weapons (the hammer, axe (Axe of Perun), and arrow), and war. He was first associated with weapons made of stone and later with those of metal.Like Germanic Thor,[citation needed] Perun is described as a rugged man with a copper beard. He rides in a chariot pulled by a goat buck and carries a mighty axe, or sometimes a hammer. The axe is hurled at evil people and spirits and will always return to his hand.Veles is defeated by Perun[citation needed], Žrnovnica, Croatia, probably 8th centurySymbolfire, oak, iris, eagle, axePerunspring, east, fertility, athmosphere, thunderboltIn Slavic mythology, much like in Norse mythology, the world was represented by a sacred tree, usually an oak, whose branches and trunk represented the living world of heavens and mortals, whilst its roots represented the underworld, i.e. the realm of the dead. Perun was a ruler of the living world, sky and earth, and was often symbolised by an eagle sitting on the top of the tallest branch of the tree, from which he kept watch over the entire world. Deep down in the roots of the tree was the place of his enemy, symbolised by a serpent or a dragon: this was Veles, watery god of the underworld, who continually provoked Perun by stealing his cattle, children, or wife. Perun pursued Veles around the earth, attacking him with his lightning bolts from the sky. Veles fled from him by transforming himself into various animals, or hiding behind trees, houses, or people; wherever a lightning bolt struck, it was believed, this was because Veles hid from Perun under or behind that particular place. In the end, Perun managed to kill Veles, or to chase him back down into his watery underworld. The supreme god thus reestablished the order in the world which had been disrupted by his chaotic enemy. He then returned to the top of the World tree and proudly informed his opponent down in the roots: Ну, там твое место, там сабе будь! (Nu, tam tvoje mjesto, tam sabje bud'! "Well, there is your place, remain there!"). This line came from aBelarusian folk tale of great antiquity. To the Slavs, the mythological symbolism of a supreme heavenly god who battles with his underworldly enemy through storms and thunder was extremely significant, and from Perun and Veles, this idea of cosmic battle was passed onto Godand the Devil following Christianization.In 980, when prince Vladimir the Great came to the throne of Kiev, he erected statues of five pagan gods in front of his palace. Perun was chief among these, represented with a silver head and a golden moustache. Vladimir's uncle Dobrinja also had a shrine of Perun established in his city of Novgorod. After the Christianization of Kievan Rus, this place became a monastery, which, quite remarkably, continued to bear the name of Perun.Perun is not mentioned directly in any of the records of Western Slavic paganism, but a reference to him is perhaps made in a short note in Helmod's Chronica Slavorum, written in the latter half of the 12th century, which states (quite similarly to Procopius some six centuries earlier) that Slavic tribes, even though they worship many various gods, all agree there is a supreme god in heaven which rules over all other on earth. This could be a reference to Perun, but since he is not named, nor any of his chief attributes (thunder or lightning) mentioned, we cannot be certain.Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. TheMacedonian and Bulgarian people believe that the name of the mountain Pirin, one of the highest mountains of the Balkan Peninsula, was named after Perun. There are also places called: Perun (the famous mountain in Bosnia Herzegovina, Vareš), Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunička Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina and Perutovac. These names today mostly represent mountain tops, but in medieval times, large oaks, sacred groves and even entire villages or citadels were named Perun. Also, as mentioned already, in Ukrainian perun and in Polish piorun means "thunderbolt". Among South Slavs, a mountain plantIris germanica is known in folklore as perunika ("Perun's plant") and sometimes also as bogisha, ("god's plant"), and was believed to grow from ground that had been struck by lightning. Also the Serbian surname Peruničić is derived from Perun.Wooden statue of Perun made inRussiaModern wooden statue of Perun, the god of thunder and lightning,RutheniaThe Slavic autonym Slověninъ is usually considered a derivation from slovo "word", originally denoting "people who speak (the same language)," i.e. people who understand each other, in contrast to the Slavic word denoting "foreign people" – němci, meaning "mumbling, murmuring people" (from Slavic němъ – "mumbling, mute"). The latter word may be the derivation of words to denote German/Germanic people in many later Slavic languages: e.g., Czech Němec, SlovakNemec, Slovene Nemec, Belarusian, Russian and Bulgarian Немец, Serbian Немац, Serbian,Bosnian and Croatian Nijemac, Polish Niemiec, Ukrainian Німець, etc.,[37] but another theory states that rather these words are derived from the name of the Nemetes tribe,[38][39] which is derived from the Celtic root nemeto-.[40][41]The English word Slav is derived from the Middle English word sclave, which was borrowed fromMedieval Latin sclavus or slavus,[42] itself a borrowing and Byzantine Greek σκλάβος sklábos"slave," which was in turn apparently derived from a misunderstanding of the Slavic autonym (denoting a speaker of their own languages). The Byzantine term Sklavinoi was loaned into Arabic as Saqaliba صقالبة (sing.Saqlabi صقلبي) by medieval Arab historiographers.[citation needed]However, the origin of this word is disputed.[43][44]Alternative proposals for the etymology of Slověninъ propounded by some scholars have much less support. B.P. Lozinski argues that the word slava once had the meaning of worshipper, in this context meaning "practicer of a common Slavic religion," and from that evolved into an ethnonym.[45] S.B. Bernstein speculates that it derives from a reconstructed Proto-Indo-European *(s)lawos, cognate to Ancient Greek λαός laós "population, people," which itself has no commonly accepted etymology.[46] Meanwhile others have pointed out that the suffix -enin indicates a man from a certain place, which in this case should be a place called Slova or Slava, possibly a river name. The Old East Slavic Slavuta for the Dnieper River was argued by Henrich Bartek (1907–1986) to be derived from slova and also the origin of Slovene.[47]Last scientific opinions about the earliest mentions of Slavic raids across the lower River Danubeshow that they may be dated to the first half of the 6th century, yet no archaeological evidence of a Slavic settlement in the Balkans could be securely dated before ca. 600 [48][49][50]The Slavs are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group living in Central Europe, Eastern Europe,Southeast Europe, North Asia and Central Asia, who speak the Indo-European Slavic languages, and share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. From the early 6th century they spread to inhabit most of Central and Eastern Europe and Southeast Europe.[27]In addition to their main population center in Europe, some East Slavs (Russians) also settled later in Siberia[28] and Central Asia.[29] Part of all Slavic ethnicities emigrated to other parts of the world.[30][31] Over half of Europe's territory is inhabited by Slavic-speaking communities.[32] The worldwide population of people of Slavic descent is close to 350 million, making Slavs among the largest panethnicities in the world.Modern nations and ethnic groups called by the ethnonym Slavs are considerably diverse both genetically and culturally, and relations between them – even within the individual ethnic groups themselves – are varied, ranging from a sense of connection to feelings of mutual hostility.[33]Present-day Slavic people are classified into East Slavic (chiefly Belarusians, Russians andUkrainians), West Slavic (chiefly Czechs, Poles, Slovaks and Wends, or Sorbs), and South Slavic(chiefly Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs and Slovenes).[34] For a more comprehensive list, see the ethnocultural subdivisions.
Rudolf I of Habsburg died on 15 July 1291. For many years before his death, Rudolf had tried to secure the election of his eldest son Albert (Albrecht) as his successor. He was thwarted, however, by the opposition of the Archbishop of Cologne, Siegfried II of Westerburg, and the King of Bohemia, Wenceslaus (Václav/Wenzel) II. Only the Count Palatine Louis II of Upper Bavaria"the Rigorous" promised to choose Albert.Adolf’s political activities had been limited to his role as Bundesgenosse of the Archbishop of Cologne. Adolf had no particular office, but likely became known through his involvement with the Archbishops of Cologne and Mainz in the politics of the Middle Rhine and Mainz areas. He spoke German, French, and Latin, which was rare at that time for nobles.Adolf of Nassau was the reigning count of a small German state, born in about 1255 as the son ofWalram II, Count of Nassau and Adelheid of Katzenelnbogen. Adolf’s brother was Dieter of Nassau, who after Adolf’s death would become Archbishop of Trier.Adolf was married in 1270 to Imagina of Isenburg-Limburg (died after 1313) and had eight children with her. Agnes of Isenburg-Limburg, the sister of Imagina, was married to Henry (Heinrich) of Westerburg, the brother of Siegfried II of Westerburg, the Archbishop of Cologne.Adolf (or Adolph) (c. 1255 – 2 July 1298) was the King of Germany from 1292 until 1298. Though his title in his lifetime was Rex Romanorum (King of the Romans), he is usually known as Adolf of Nassau. He was never crowned by the Pope, which would have secured him the title of Holy Roman Emperor. He was the second in the succession of so-called count-kings.
Dausenau is a municipality in the district of Rhein-Lahn, in Rhineland-Palatinate, in westernGermany.Dausenau was one of the oldest possessions of the counts of Nassau and the arms thus show the lion of Nassau. The village was granted city rights in 1348, but these west later lost again. The seals of Dausenau showed from at least the 15th century until 1568 a seal with the arms and St. Castor as a supporter, he is the patron saint of the local church. In an 18th-century seal only the picture of Lady Justice was shown, not a shield with the lion. The present arms were granted in 1937 and go back to the old seal.Location of Dausenau within Rhein-Lahn-Kreis district The earliest known surviving mention of Nassau occurs as the Villa Nassova estate of theBishopric of Worms in a 915 deed. In 1348 the Emperor Charles IV granted it town-privilegesrights together with nearby Dausenau and Scheuern. Count Dudo-Heinrich of Laurenburg had theBurg Nassau built about 1100 and his descendants began to call themselves the Counts of Nassau. Count Adolf of Nassau was elected King of the Romans from 1292 until his death on 2 July 1298. The Counts of Nassau married into the line of the neighbouring Counts of Arnstein (Obernhof/Attenhausen), founders of the monastery at Arnstein. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the town became part of the Duchy of Nassau.Nassau is a town located in the German Land (State) of Rhineland-Palatinate. It lies in the Lahn River valley between the cities of Bad Ems and Limburg an der Lahn. Nassau is the seat of theVerbandsgemeinde ("collective municipality") of Nassau. The town is on the German-Dutch holiday road, the Orange Route. As of 2002, it had a population of 5,209.Location of Nassau within Rhein-Lahn-Kreis district
HugoPhilippsMaleJuliusTherese21/7/1893Oberhausen,Duesseldorf,Rhine Province,GermanyOberhausen,Duesseldorf,Rhine Province,GermanyLodz,Lodz,Lodz,Poland
SelmaHamburgerFemaleJosephRegina27/05/1884Hintersteinau,Kassel,Hesse-Nassau,GermanyHoerstein,Wuerzburg Unterfranken,Bavaria,Germany29/05/1942
YaacovDonnerMaleMosheSarahGalizia,PolandStrobkovski,Zemplin,Slovakia,Czechoslovakia1941Dachau,Camp
Francesca DonnerBorn: June 15, 1900, Inzersdorf, AustriaDied: March 19, 1992, Seoul, South KoreaSpouse: Syngman Rhee
Francesca Maria Barbara Donner (Korean: 프란체스카 도너; Peurancheseuka Doneo; June 15, 1900 – March 19, 1992) ..
Franziska Donner
Peurancheseuka Ri Seutori 프란체스카 리 스토리 [The story of Francesca Rhee]
Austria born Caucasian Jew F. Donner with Syngman Rhee in 1933
To become Prez Rhee's wife and first lady of Korea after Jap invasion replaced by Jap based American occupation of Korea still leaving Koreans starved and poverty stricken after 35 slavement.
1933-1945 Start of Austria born Hitler Nazi occupying Germany.
1933'-
After five years of residence in Austria, which she had left more than 30 years earlier, Donner returned to South Korea in 1970. She lived from 1970 to 1992 in Seoul, specifically in theIhwajang, the former home of President Rhee, together with their adoptive son, Rhee In-soo (Korean: 이인수; Yi In-su) and his family.
Death
Donner died on March 19, 1992, in Seoul, South Korea.
Donner was born in the municipality of Inzersdorf, which would be incorporated into Vienna in 1938. She worked at the League of Nations in Geneva as an interpreter, diplomat, and hostess. In 1933, she met Korean politician Syngman Rhee (Yi Seung-man 이승만) in a Geneva hotel. At the time Rhee was living in the United States, he was only on a visit in Geneva. He visited her shortly afterwards in Austria and asked to marry her. Donner followed him to the United States, and the marriage took place in 1934 in New York.[2] For both, it was a second marriage.Personal detailsBornJune 15, 1900Inzersdorf, Austria-Hungary(now Vienna, Austria)DiedMarch 19, 1992 (aged 91)Seoul, South KoreaSpouse(s)Syngman RheeFranziska DonnerHangul프란체스카 도너Revised RomanizationPeurancheseuka DoneoMcCune–ReischauerP'ŭranch'esŭk'a TonŏNative Korean NameHangul이부란 / 리부란Hanja李富蘭Revised RomanizationI Buran / Ri BuranMcCune–ReischauerYi Puran / Ri PuranFrancesca Maria Barbara Donner (Korean: 프란체스카 도너; Peurancheseuka Doneo; June 15, 1900 – March 19, 1992) was the second wife of Syngman Rhee, and was the inaugural First Lady of South Korea, from 1948 to 1960.Franziska Donner프란체스카 도너Donner in 19331st First Lady of South Korea In office1948–1960PresidentSyngman Rhee
These four were Slav Origin and had Jewish roots;
J. Vladimir
A. Pushkin
John Paul II
Gorbachev
.......................
According to birth documents, she was born Franziska Donner. She later used the spelling Franzeska Donner (even in official documents). Otherwise, the most common spelling of her name was the Italian form, Francesca. This version is used in all of her Korean documents (including her passport). [1]
The Slavs are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group living in Central Europe, Eastern Europe,Southeast Europe, North Asia and Central Asia, who speak the Indo-European Slavic languages, and share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. From the early 6th century they spread to inhabit most of Central and Eastern Europe and Southeast Europe.[27]In addition to their main population center in Europe, some East Slavs (Russians) also settled later in Siberia[28] and Central Asia.[29] Part of all Slavic ethnicities emigrated to other parts of the world.[30][31] Over half of Europe's territory is inhabited by Slavic-speaking communities.[32] The worldwide population of people of Slavic descent is close to 350 million, making Slavs among the largest panethnicities in the world.Modern nations and ethnic groups called by the ethnonym Slavs are considerably diverse both genetically and culturally, and relations between them – even within the individual ethnic groups themselves – are varied, ranging from a sense of connection to feelings of mutual hostility.[33]Present-day Slavic people are classified into East Slavic (chiefly Belarusians, Russians andUkrainians), West Slavic (chiefly Czechs, Poles, Slovaks and Wends, or Sorbs), and South Slavic(chiefly Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs and Slovenes).[34] For a more comprehensive list, see the ethnocultural subdivisions.
Slavic people included Catholic Pope, Russian Jew
Cossacks (Ukrainian: козаки́, koza'ki; Russian: каза́ки, ka'zaki), are a group of predominantly East Slavic people who became known as members of democratic, semi-military and semi-naval communities,[1] predominantly located in Ukraine and in Southern Russia. They inhabited sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper,[2] Don, Terek, and Ural river basins and played an important role in the historical and cultural development of both Russia and Ukraine.[3]The origins of the first Cossacks are disputed, though the Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk claimedKhazar origin.[4][5] The traditional post-imperial historiography dates the emergence of Cossacks to the 14th or 15th centuries, when two connected groups emerged, the Zaporozhian Sich of the Dnieper and the Don Cossack Host.[6]The Zaporizhian Sich were a vassal people of Poland–Lithuania during feudal times. Under increasing social and religious pressure from the Commonwealth, in the mid-17th century the Sich declared an independent Cossack Hetmanate, initiated by a rebellion under Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Afterwards, the Treaty of Pereyaslav brought most of the Ukrainian Cossack stateunder Russian rule.[7] The Sich with its lands became an autonomous region under the Russian-Polish protectorate.[8]The Don Cossack Host, which had been established by the 16th century,[9] allied with theTsardom of Russia. Together they began a systematic conquest and colonisation of lands in order to secure the borders on the Volga, the whole of Siberia (see Yermak Timofeyevich), and the Yaik and the Terek Rivers. Cossack communities had developed along the latter two rivers well before the arrival of the Don Cossacks.[10]By the 18th century, Cossack hosts in the Russian Empire occupied effective buffer zones on its borders. The expansionist ambitions of the empire relied on ensuring the loyalty of Cossacks, which caused tension given their traditional exercise of freedom, democratic self-rule, and independence. Cossacks, such as Stenka Razin, Kondraty Bulavin, Ivan Mazepa, and Yemelyan Pugachev, led major anti-imperial wars and revolutions in the Empire in order to abolish slaveryand odious bureaucracy and to maintain independence. The Empire responded by ruthless executions and tortures, the destruction of the western part of the Don Cossack Host during theBulavin Rebellion in 1707–1708, the destruction of Baturyn after Mazepa's rebellion in 1708,[11]and the formal dissolution of the Lower Dnieper Zaporozhian Host in 1775, after Pugachev's Rebellion.[12]By the end of the 18th century, Cossack nations had been transformed into a special military estate (Sosloviye), "a military class".[13] Similar to the knights of medieval Europe in feudal times, the Cossacks came to military service having to obtain charger horses, arms, and supplies at their own expense. The government provided only firearms and supplies for them.[14] Cossack service was considered the most rigorous one.Because of their military tradition, Cossack forces played an important role in Russia's wars of the 18th–20th centuries such as the Great Northern War, the Seven Years' War, the Crimean War,Napoleonic Wars, Caucasus War, numerous Russo-Turkish Wars, and the First World War. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Tsarist regime used Cossacks extensively to perform police service (for example, both to prevent pogroms and to suppress the revolutionary movement, especially in 1905–7).[15] They also served as border guards on national and internal ethnic borders (as was the case in the Caucasus War).During the Russian Civil War,
...1333 marks end of jewish Crimea ( eventual Jurchen -Manchu-Corea)
Of Ottoman Empire era of jew Genghis Khan dead before 1333.
....with death of Jew Genghis Khan gives rise to Russian jews coming to power in 16th century thru jew Tsar Dictatorship.
......Note failed 1592 Jap attempt to overthrow Shogun Coreans of Japan
/ Failed attempt of Jap attacking much prosperous Korea in 1592...
....The 1333 Islamic Khan replacing jew Khan of Crimea Ottoman Empire starts jew
Paying to occupy Kobe,Japan takes over Japan by funding Meiji Japs that overthrew Corean-Shoguns in Japan...to which jew finances allowed meiji invasion of 1910-1945 adjacent to jew Adolf Hitler and jew Stalin 1933-1945 German nazi based European invasion tgat was part of Shock Doctrine described by Canadian Jew author Kline.
Jew Stalin and Jews of Kobe, Jap started Meiji
Led to ;
- ten year end of USA Great Depression from 1929-1939.
- Sephardic Jews and Homo Jesuit Catholic of Holy Roman Empire/Tsar/Soviet Russua gaining territories of Jew Genghis Khan lost from 1333 to earn free slavement of Korean-Manchu-Chinese.
-Ashkenazi jews gain Zionist Israel, global banking monopoly, kill of jews and political enrmies of zionist jews, reiterate slavement of Asia-Creo Portugese Colonies of French-British Holy Roman Empire..
Don and Kuban Cossacks were the first nations to declare open war against the Bolsheviks. By 1918, Cossacks declared the complete independence of their nations and formed the independent states, the Ukrainian State, the Don Republic, and the Kuban People's Republic. The Cossack troops formed the effective core of the anti-Bolshevik White Army, and Cossack republics became centers for the Anti-Bolshevik White movement. With the victory of the Red Army, the Cossack lands were subjected to Decossackization and the man-made famine of 1932–33 (Holodomor). After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cossacks made a systematic return to Russia. Many took an active part in Post-Soviet conflicts andYugoslav Wars. In Russia's 2010 Population Census, Cossacks have been recognized as anethnicity.[16] There are Cossack organizations in Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Poland, and the United States.[17][18][19]
......
1. Ice age.
Siberian-Sahkara inuits-Russian Alaska bridged Siberia to Canadian Alaska Eskimos.
Asians that is modern day Russia-China-Korea.
2. Ice age.
Neighboring Artic Quebec Eskimos of Europe make up Scandanavian Nordic Vikings
At the time of Asian Siberia-Sahkara Island-Akaska-Canasa Inuits.
3. After meteor destruction; Egyptian Islams slaved Jews made up stories in illustrated Bible to popularize jews over othrr group of natives...fabricated noah's ark marjs the end of
Ice age due to meteor shower destructions.
4. Seperation among jews slaved by Egyptian Islam gave birth to jew bible fabrication.
5. Egyptians mixed Eskimo shamanism which led to birth of Islam.
6. At birth of Islam, Jews made their fabricated take of the bible...jews switched ice age inuits abd eskimos to stiry of caucasian viking tale of adam and eve. Jews marked seperation from Egypyian slavery with tale of Moses Flood Genocide of Romans and the genocide thru Noahs ark tale giving rise to Jew Supremacy.
7. Jews made up tales of Ashkenazi jews( Arctic Viking Gaul French German Normans
Wanting to slave non-Caucasian African and Carribean natives), Sphardic jews most similar to Islams ( Russian-Asia of Ottoman Empire where Jew Genghis Khan controlled Russia and China thru Crimea before Islamic Khan overthrew jew Khsn as of 1333. Historic Jew Khan of Mongolia died as a jew before 1333 onset of Islamic occupation of Mongolian territiry encroached/stoken/divided among Jew Russian Soviets-Jew established China of 1911-pre1910 Manchu-Jurechen-Korean territories.
-Korea-Manchu Jurechen alliance before 1900s
Came from mix of Jew Khan before 1333 Islams and ice age native Siberia inuit-sahkara Island-Alaska-Canada eskimos.
- jew fabrication of bible filled division of races make up three dominant jew version.
Islam religion comes from Egyptian Roman Empire-Ottoman Empire following united continent. But after meteor shower-earthquakes/flooding and civikization since Egyptian era
Seperated Asians of inuit eskimos, viking arctic caucasian norman nordic natives, and africans-middle East Islam descendents Creo slaved by jews breaking off from Islams.
-Islams broke away from Shamanism of Ice age natives Just as jews seperated from slavenent of Islams. Jews fabricated bible to control mankind as slave ownership given to jews.
-Fabricated adam and eve of jew is to recresre jew hierarchy tale replacing natives, inuuts, eskimos, vikings of ice age Shamanism.
-jews fabricated bible filled with jew biblical tales that seem to backfire given all parables narrarating good are not followed by jews. Jews display homosexuality, genocide, polygomy, incest, human sacrifices, usury-cheats and deceptions....among reiterated point that jews do not learn from mistakes....that jews practice slavery and superiority...that with every creo-slavery of native non-Ashkenazi/NonWhite-Sephardics slaves of Ashkenazi jews include rise in civil war/ homosexual prostitution/drug-genocide-murder-incest indecencies visible in the jew fabricated bible.
...Islam stems from Roman Empire- Ottoman Empire of Middle East.
....Jews seperated in three madd up biblical jew tale of;
1. Ashkenazi jews stsrted as anti Islam, Viking Gaul German French Scot Gaelic Norman descendents wanting to break from SephArdic Jews of Russia-Asia. Ashkenazi-Jew Hitler -Jew Stalin Soviet Communism-Scot Freemasons of jew cults- Zionist jews of modern America, Britain, Amsterdam, France, Brazil has global control in American military based territories as well as Creo-language-portuguese language non-caucasian slaves of Roman Empire Jews.
2. Sephardic jews have received help from ashkenazi jews in regainjng Russian territories of China-Jew Khan before 1333 Crimea Asian territories of Manchu-Jurechen-Corea before 1910 destruction by 1860 Kobe, Jap Zionist jews financially aiding Meiji Jap thst overthrew Corea-Shogun-Baekje descenddnts occupying Korea as Shoguns. Sephardic jews of Russia-Asia connect through homosexual jesuit catholic jews of Holy Roman Empire of Napolean Italy-France-Scot Britain-America-Creo language slaves across the globe in Brazil-Amsterdam-Kobe,Jap, Australia, French British colonies, South America, Carribeans; any estalishment of Pope-Jesuit Jew Missionsries; Note hokosexual Jesuit of French Italian Nicolas Auld entering India-Keifeng jew town of China, Nanjing-Beijing capitals of traditional and historic significance, Shanghai territories of opium and silk trading ports that led to Jew-French /Jew British colonial establishment of Manchu-Jurechen territories like Vietnam
And other Creo-Purtugese language exposed asian rerritories.
-Aside from Islam of Egypt-Middke East-Roman Empire-Ottoman Empire,
Of Ashkenazi jews -israel of Scot Freemason-Zionist jews of Holy Roman Empire-France-Creo Native slaves-Britsin, Amsterdam, Brazil, America, French colonies, British colonies, and Sephsrdic jews of homoeexual jesuit Holy Roman Catholics of Europe and Russia aided by Ashkenazi jews in Sephardic jew control over Asian rerritories...
.......
Modern East Slavic peoples and ethnic groups include:RussiansPomorsPolekhsGoryunsKamchadalsLipovan RussiansCossacks (cultural community)Amur CossacksAstrakhan CossacksBaikal CossacksDon CossacksKuban CossacksOrenburg CossacksSemirechye CossacksSiberian CossacksTerek CossacksUral CossacksUssuri CossacksBelarusiansPoleszuksUkrainiansPoleszuksHutsulsBoykosLemkosRusyns (also considered as a separate nation)Carpathian RusynsPannonian RusynsIn the eighth and ninth centuries, the south branches of East Slavic tribes had to pay tribute to theKhazars, a Turkic-speaking people who adopted Judaism in the late eighth or ninth century and lived in the southern Volga and Caucasus regions. Roughly in the same period, the Ilmen Slavsand Krivichs were dominated by the Varangians of the Rus' Khaganate, who controlled the trade route between the Baltic Sea and the Byzantine Empire.The earliest tribal centres of the East Slavs included Novgorod, Izborsk, Polotsk, Gnezdovo, andKiev. Archaeology indicates that they appeared at the turn of the tenth century, soon after the Slavs and Finns of Novgorod had rebelled against the Norsemen and forced them to withdraw to Scandinavia. The reign of Oleg of Novgorod in the early tenth century witnessed the return of theVarangians to Novgorod and relocation of their capital to Kiev on the Dnieper. From this base, the mixed Varangian-Slavic population (known as the Rus) launched several expeditions against Constantinople.At first the ruling elite was primarily Norse, but it was rapidly Slavicized by the mid-century.Sviatoslav I of Kiev (who reigned in the 960s) was the first Rus ruler with a Slavonic name.Cossacks fighting Tatars ofCrimea.Tatars (Tatar: Татарлар / Tatarlar, Old Turkic: ), sometimes spelled Tartars, are aTurkic[7][8][9][10][11] ethnic group in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The Tatars are a native people of the Volga region of Russia, Tatarstan and Bashkortostan. Most Tatars live in theRussian Federation, with a population of 5.5 million, including 2 million in the republic ofTatarstan, 1 million in the republic of Bashkortostan and 2.5 million in other regions of Russia. After the dissolution of the USSR, significant populations of Tatars found themselves in the newly independent Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Ukraine.Orkhon inscriptions states that Once Oghuz Turks were living on the sides of Tuul River neighbouring to Tatars. Oghuz Turks migrated from this place to western regions in the 8th century.
Jew Genghis Khan who died before Islam took over in 1333; Manchu-Jurechen language of Jew Khans are tried to be made extinct!
Tuul River (Mongolian: Туул гол, tuul means "to wade through" in Mongolian; in older sources also Tola) is a river in central and northern Mongolia considered sacred by the Mongols. It is 704 km long and drains an area 49,840 square km. The river is called the "Duluo river" in theSuishu, a Chinese historical work completed in 636 AD. The Secret History of the Mongols (1240 AD) frequently mentions a "Black Forest of the Tuul River" where the palace of Wang Khan was located (Genghis Khan visited it frequently and later made it his own). The Tuul is generally called the Khatan Tuul or Queen Tuul, similar to the Onon River, which is called Onon Khatan Ijii or Queen Mother Onon.Originating in the Khan-Khentein-Nuruu Nature Reserve in the Khentii Mountains, this body of water runs through the southern part of the Mongolian capital of Ulaanbaatar. It is a tributary of the Orkhon River, which flows into the Selenge River, which flows into Russia and Lake Baikal. The Tuul River also flows along the Khustain Nuruu National Park. It is typically frozen over from the middle of November through the middle of April. Willow forests grow along the Tuul River, and the river itself is home to endangered species of sturgeon.[citation needed]Currently the river is suffering from pollution, some caused by Ulaanbaatar's central sewage treatment facility, as well as heavy mineral and sedimentation pollution caused by gold mining in the Zaamar area. In addition, the steady influx of people settling near the river may be causing a degradation of water quality.The Tuul flowing through the Gorkhi-Terelj National ParkName origin: Mongolian: tuul, "to wade through"Nickname: Queen TuulCountry MongoliaKherlen River (also known as Kerülen; Mongolian: Хэрлэн гол; Chinese: 克鲁伦河; pinyin: Kèlǔlún hé) is a river of 1,254 km length in Mongolia and China.Name origin: Mongolian: kherlen, "hederated"CountriesMongolia, People's Republic of ChinaKhentii Mountains (Mongolian: Хэнтийн нуруу) are a mountain range in the Töv and Khentii Provinces in northern Mongolia. The chain overlaps the Khan Khentii Strictly Protected Area and includes Mongolia's sacred mountain, Burkhan Khaldun, which is associated with the origin ofGenghis Khan.The range forms the watershed between the Arctic Ocean (via Lake Baikal) and the Pacific Oceanbasins. Rivers originating in the range include the Onon, Kherlen, and Tuul.Nickname: Queen Mother OnonCountriesMongolia, RussiaThe Onon (Mongolian: Онон гол, Russian: Оно́н) is a river in Mongolia and Russia of length 818 km and watershed 94,010 km². It originates at the eastern slope of the Khentii Mountains. For 298 km it flows within Mongolia. Its confluence with Ingoda River produces Shilka River.The upper Onon is one of the areas that are claimed to be the place where Genghis Khan was born and grew up.The Secret History of the Mongols begins thus: “There came into the world a "Borte Chono" (blue-gray wolf) whose destiny was Heaven’s will. His wife was a "Gua Maral" (beauty fallowdoe). They traveled across the inland sea and when they were camped near the source of the Onon River in sight of Burkhan Khaldun and their first son was born, named Bat Tsagaan.”
Khan - 1226–1280Orda Khan (White Horde) - 1242–1255Batu Khan (Blue Horde)Genghis Khan as portrayed in a 14th-century Yuan era album.ReignSpring 1206 – August 1227CoronationSpring 1206 in khurultai at the Onon River, MongoliaFull nameGenghis KhanMongol: Чингис хаанChinggis KhaanMongol script (right):Chinggis Khagan[note 1]TitlesKhan, KhaganTemple name: 元太祖 (pinyin: Yuán Tàizǔ; Wade–Giles: Yüan2 T'ai4-tsu3)Posthumous name: Emperor Fatian Qiyun Shengwu(Emperor Fa-tien Chi-yun Sheng-wu; 法天啟運聖武皇帝)Bornlikely 1162[2]BirthplaceKhentii Mountains, MongoliaDiedAugust 1227[3] (aged c. 65).
Genghis Khan died before 1333- He was a jew!!!!!
Khan were jews before 1333 Islam took over ruling khan territores srarting 1333!!!!!
CapitalSarai BatuLanguagesMongolian language, Kypchak languageReligionTengrism, Shamanism, Islam, Christianity,Judaism, Tibetan Buddhism(1240s–1313)Islam(1313–1502)The Crimean Khanate was founded when certain clans of the Golden Horde Empire ceased their nomadic life in the Desht-i Kipchak (Kypchak Steppes of today's Ukraine and southern Russia) and decided to make Crimea their yurt (homeland), which at that time had been an ulus of the Golden Horde since 1239, with its capital at Qirim (Staryi Krym). The local separatists invited aGenghisid contender for the Golden Horde throne, Hacı Giray, to be their khan. Hacı Giray accepted their invitation and traveled from exile in Lithuania. He warred for independence against the Horde from 1420 to 1441, in the end achieving success. But Hacı Giray then had to fight off internal rivals before he could ascend the throne of the khanate in 1449, after which he moved its capital to Qırq Yer (today part of Bahçeseray).[2] The khanate included the Crimean Peninsula(except the south and southwest coast and ports, controlled by the Republic of Genoa) and the steppes of modern southern Ukraine and Russia.
Crimean Khanate, or Khanate of Crimea (Crimean Tatar: Qırım Hanlığı, قريم خانلغى or Qırım Yurtu, قريم يورتى; Russian: Крымское ханство - Krymskoye khanstvo; Ukrainian: Кримське ханство -Kryms'ke khanstvo; Polish: Chanat Krymski; Turkish: Kırım Yurdu or Kırım Hanlığı), was a stateruled by Crimean Tatars from 1441 to 1783. Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. This khanate was by far the longest-lived of the Turkic khanates that succeeded the empire of the Golden
Horde.[1]History - Established1441 - Annexed by Russia1783Today part of Ukraine Russia MoldovaGovernmentHereditary monarchyKhan - 1449-1466Hacı I Giray (First) - 1777–1783Şahin Giray (last)Crimean Khanate in 1600CapitalBahçeseray (Bakhchisaray)LanguagesCrimean Tatar, Ottoman TurkishReligionIslamCrimean Khanateقريم يورتىQırım YurtuVassal of the Ottoman Empire (1478-1774)← 1441–1783.
Mirza Abu Talib شاه خان, better known as Shaista Khan) was a subahdar and a general in theMughal army. A maternal uncle to Emperor Aurangzeb,[3] he served as the Mughal governor ofBengal from 1664 to 1688, and was a key figure during the rule of his nephew. Under Shaista Khan's authority, the city of Dhaka and Mughal power in the province attained its greatest heights. In the year 1660, he was sent to participate in the struggle against the Maratha kingShivaji. However, he was defeated in a surprise attack and lost one of his sons.
In 1666, Shaista Khan, who was then Mughal Governor of Bengal, defeated the Arakanese, conquered Chittagong, and renamed it Islamabad.[4] However, in the early days the Mughalsupremacy was confined only to the plain areas of chittagong, and the Chakmas remained practically unaffected. After a few years, when a dispute developed between the Mughals and the Chakmas, the Mughals demanded tribute from the Chakmas for trading with Chittagong.[5]In 1713, peace was established, and soon a stable relationship developed between the Chakmas and the Mughals; the latter never demanded complete subjugation from the former. The Mughals also rewarded the Chakma king Sukdev, who established a new capital in his own name, in an area is still known as Sukbilash. There are still ruins of the royal palace and other establishments. Subsequently the capital was shifted to Rajanagar.The ethnic Rakhine make up the majority.[6][7] The Rakhine reside mainly in the lowland valleys as well as Ramree and Manaung (Cheduba) islands. A number of other ethnic minorities like theChin, Mro, Chakma, Khami, Dainet,Bengali Hindu and Maramagri inhabit mainly in the hill regions of the state. Most of the Tibeto-Burmans living in Rakhine State adhere to Theravada Buddhism. Even the Chin, who are usually related with Protestant Christianity or Animism, of Rakhine state adhere to Buddhism due to the cultural influence of the Rakhine people. Muslim constitute more than 96% of the population near the border with Bangladesh and the coastal areas, even though they are subject to a government rule limiting them to two children per familyFaced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, Bodawpaya acquired western kingdoms of Arakan (1784), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817), leading to a long ill-defined border with British India.[8]Europeans began to set up trading posts in the Irrawaddy delta region during this period. Konbaung tried to maintain its independence by balancing between the French and the British. In the end it failed, the British severed diplomatic relations in 1811, and the dynasty fought and lost three wars against the British Empire, culminating in total annexation of Burma by the British.The British decisively defeated the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). Burma was forced to cede Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim, and pay a large indemnity of one million pounds.In 1837, King Bagyidaw's brother, Tharrawaddy, seized the throne and had the chief queen Me Nu, her brother, executed. Tharrawaddy made no attempt to improve relations with Britain.In the defence of its realm, the dynasty fought four wars successfully against the Qing Dynasty of China which saw the threat of the expansion of Burmese power in the East. In 1770, despite his victory over the Chinese armies, King Hsinbyushin sued for peace with China and concluded a treaty in order to maintain bilateral trade with the Middle Kingdom which was very important for the dynasty at that time. The Qing Dynasty then opened up its markets and restored trading with Burma in 1788 after reconciliation. Thenceforth peaceful and friendly relations prevailed between China and Burma for a long time.There are many tribes among the Chin people, such as Yinduu ( Daa ), Kaang, Ukpu(chin pon), Zo, Thai, Tedim (who prefer to call themselves Zomi, as the word "Chin" is not in their own language;note the resemblance to Mizo of the neighbouring Mizoram state in India). Major tribes of the Chin include Asho, Chro/Cho, Khumi, Zomi, Laizo, Laimi,[12] Matu, Mara, etc. It would be relevant to mention also that they are related to the Kukis of Nagaland, Manipur and Assam. For want of a more acceptable common name, they are usually called the Chin-Kuki-Mizo people, bringing together the three most common names for them, whether given by outsiders or themselves. There are also ten of thousands of Chin people in Mizoram State, India, mainly in the area of theLai Autonomous District Council, formerly part of Chhimtuipui District, and a sizable population also live in Churachandpur district of Manipur, consisting of smaller tribes like the Hmar, Paite,Simte, Zou, Gangte and others. Bawn tribe in Southern Mizoram State and Bangladesh are descendants of the Lai tribe. This Chin/Mizo/Zomi/Kuki people are scattered into three countries: Burma, Bangladesh, and India. The Chin speak several Kukish languages; Ethnologue lists 49 languages in this group, of which 20 contain the word "Chin" in their name.[13]Hakha was founded around A.D. 1400 by the Lai ethnic group. The area was ruled by local chiefs for many generations and it consisted of more than 600 houses when the British troops arrived in Hakha in 1889.The British occupied Hakha on January 19, 1890, as part of their operation to "subdue the wild tribes" in the Arakan Hills Division, as the area was then called. The British government later established a sub-divisional office and Hakha became a town a few years later.The first American Baptist missionary couple, Arthur Carson (1860-1908) and his wife Laura (1858-1942) who arrived in Hakha on March 15, 1899 and opened a mission station. Later other missionaries joined them and did extensive mission works throughout the Chin Hills and converted most of the Northern Chin State to Christianity within a century. This missionary work brought education, development, social and economic changes, and health improvement to theChin people. The main contribution to language education was by Chester Strait of Wisconsin (1893-1985) who opened the Chin Hills Bible School in 1928 with thirteen students - four from the Tiddim area of the Zomi people, four from Falam and five from the Haka areas of the Laimi, another branch of the Chin people. Although the teaching was in the Lai language after six months all students were able to write their final exam in the language.[4]During the Second World War, Hakha was captured by Japanese troops on November 11, 1943; it was later recaptured by British troops.When Burma gained independence from British control in 1948, Hakha became an important city as the center for one of the subdivisions in the Chin Special Division, of which Falam was the capital at that time. The Chin Special Division was abolished reformed as the Chin State in 1974, at which time Hakha became the capital of the Chin State. That brought an influx of government workers, and housing development and extension of the city. Hakha eventually became the largest city in the Chin State with about 20,000 people.[citation neededThe dynasty was founded by a village chief, who later became known as Alaungpaya, in 1752 to challenge the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom which had just toppled the Toungoo dynasty. By 1759, Alaungpaya's forces had reunited all of Burma (and Manipur), and driven out the Frenchand the British who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy.[2]In 1760, Burma began a series of wars with Siam that would last well into the middle of 19th century. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had temporarily defeated Siam (1767), subdued much ofLaos (1765) and defeated four invasions by Qing China (1765–1769).[5] With the Burmese preoccupied for another two decades by another impending invasion by the Chinese,[6] the Siamese recovered their territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776.[7] Burma and Siam went to war until 1855 but after decades of war, the two countries exchanged Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Siam).Naga people (Sri Lanka)The term Naga people (Burmese: နာဂ, Hindi: नागा) refers to a conglomeration of several tribesinhabiting the North Eastern part of India and north-western Burma. The tribes have similar cultures and traditions, and form the majority ethnic group in the Indian states of Nagaland,Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.The Naga speak various distinct languages, which each belong to branches of Tibeto-Burman, including Angami–Pochuri, Ao, Inpui, Tangkhul, Thangal, Maram and Zeme. In addition, they have developed Nagamese creole, which they use between tribes and villages, which each have their own dialect of language.As of 2012, the state of Nagaland state officially recognises 17 Naga tribes. In addition, some other Naga tribes occupy territory in the contiguous adjoining states of Manipur, Assam, andArunachal Pradesh, India; and across the border in Burma. Prominent Naga tribes includeAngami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Khiamniungan, Konyak, Liangmai, Lotha, Rongmei, Zeme (see complete list).The Naga tribes practised headhunting and preserved the heads of enemies as trophies before the 19th century.[1]The Naga tribes live in the Indian states of Nagaland, Assam, Manipur and Arunachal Pradeshand the northwestern hill tracts of Burma, such as the Naga Self-Administered Zone (formerly inSagaing Division).The name "Chin" is disputed. During the British era, the British used the compound term 'Chin-Kuki-Mizo' to group the Kukish language speaking people, and the Government of India inherited this.[3] Missionaries chose to employ the term Chin to christen those on the Burmese side and the term Kuki on the Indian side of the border.[4][5]Chin nationalist leaders in Burma's Chin Statepopularized the term “Chin” following Burma's independence from Britain.[6] More recently Chin has been rejected by some for Zomi, though the Zomi are also one small Northern Kukish language group.[7] Some Zomi nationalists now consider that Chin would mean subtle Paite domination Chini-Kuki-Zomi identity, which other groups like Hmars, Zou (Zomi), Anals and Koms may not coopt.[8][9] The term Mizo also can cause confusion, particularly following the emergence of the Zomi National Congress.[10][11]The Tibeto-Burman peoples entered the Chin Hills some time in the first millennium AD as part of the wider migration of Tibeto-Burman peoples into the area. Some historians speculate that theThet people mentioned in the Burmese Chronicles might be the Chins.[4] For much of history, the sparsely populated Chin Hills were ruled by local chiefs. Political organization in the region prior to the Toungoo dynasty's conquest in the mid-16th century remains largely conjectural. The first recorded instance of a western kingdom believed to be near the Chin Hills is the Kingdom of Pateikkaya, a tributary to the Pagan Kingdom in the 11th and 12th centuries. Some historians (Arthur Phayre, Tun Nyein) put Pateikkaya in eastern Bengal, thus placing the entire Chin Hills under Pagan suzerainty but others, like Harvey, citing stone inscriptions, put it near the eastern Chin Hills.[5] (Burmese Chronicles report the kings of Pateikkaya as Indian though the ethnicity of the subjects is not explicitly cited.)Sagaing Region (Burmese: စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး, pronounced: [zəɡáiɴ táiɴ dèθa̰ dʑí], formerly Sagaing Division) is an administrative region of Burma (Myanmar), located in the north-western part of the country between latitude 21° 30' north and longitude 94° 97' east. It is bordered by India’sNagaland and Manipur States to the north, Kachin State, Shan State, and Mandalay Region to the east, Mandalay Region and Magway Region to the south, with the Ayeyarwady River forming a greater part of its eastern and also southern boundary, and Chin State and India to the west. The region has an area of 93,527 km². In 1996, it had a population of over 5,300,000 while its population in 2012 was 6,600,000. The urban population in 2012 was 1,230,000 and the rural population was 5,360,000.[2] The capital is Sagaing.Bamar, Shan, Naga, Chin
The Ao are a Naga people of Nagaland in north-east India. Their main territory is from Tsula (Dikhu) Valley (in the east) to Tsurang (Disai) Valley (in the west) in Mokokchung District. They are well known for multiple harvest festivals held each year.Another theory says that the Chang migrated to present-day Nagaland from the east, and therefore call themselves Chang ("Eastern" in the local dialect) "Chaang" means "East" in Chang dialect.[1]Some Changs also claim the Aos as their ancestors.[5] The Chang folklore is similar to that of the Ao.Chang is a Naga of Nagaland, India. It is one of the recognized Scheduled Tribes.The tribe was also known as Mazung in British India. Other Naga tribes know the Changs by different names including Changhai (Khiamniungan), Changru (Yimchunger), Duenching (upperKonyak), Machungrr (Ao), Mochumi (Sema) and Mojung (Konyak).[3]Nagaland /ˈnɑːɡəlænd/ is a state in the far north-eastern part of India. It borders the state ofAssam to the west, Arunachal Pradesh and part of Assam to the north, Myanmar to the east andManipur to the south. The state capital is Kohima, and the largest city is Dimapur. It has an area of 16,579 km2 with a population of 1,980,602 as per the 2011 census, making it one of the smallest states of India. The state is mostly mountainous except those areas bordering Assam valley. Mount Saramati is the highest peak with a height of 3,840 metres and its range forms a natural barrier between Nagaland and Burma. It lies between the parallels of 98-degree and 96-degree East Longitude and 26.6-degree and 27.4-degree latitude north of the equator.Nagaland was established on 1 December 1963 to be the 16th state of the Indian Union. It is divided into eleven districts: Kohima, Phek, Mokokchung, Wokha, Zunheboto, Tuensang, Mon,Dimapur, Kiphire, Longleng and Peren. Its native inhabitants are the Naga tribes. Agriculture is the most important economic activity and the principal crops include rice, corn, millets, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, sugarcane, potatoes and fibres. Other significant economic activity includesforestry, tourism, insurance, real estate, and miscellaneous cottage industries.Nagamese ("Naga Pidgin") is a creole used in Nagaland. It is based on Assamese. Since Nagaland is inhabited by people belonging to different Naga tribes speaking languages which are mutually unintelligible, Nagamese is the preferred form of communication for all. It is used in the Nagaland Legislature, as a means of explanation in Nagaland schools and in mixed households. It has been described as a creole, which was stable by 1936 and which is unlikely to decreolize. English is the official language of Nagaland and 67.11% of the population is educated.[citation needed]Nagamese has two cases, two tenses, three aspectual distinctions and no gender. It shares a large part of its lexicon with Assamese.
Torres Strait Creole (also Torres Strait Pidgin, Yumplatok, Torres Strait Brokan/Broken, Cape York Creole, Lockhart Creole, Papuan Pidgin English, Broken English, Brokan/Broken, Blaikman, Big Thap) is an English-based creole language spoken on several Torres Strait Islands(Queensland, Australia), Northern Cape York and South-Western Coastal Papua. It has approximately 25000 mother-tongue and bi/tri-lingual speakers, as well as several second/third-language speakers. It is widely used as a language of trade and commerce. It has six main dialects: Papuan, Western-Central, TI, Malay, Eastern, and Cape York. Its main characteristics show that it is a Pacific Pidgin, however the future in X [i] go VERB aligns it with Atlantic Creoles. Related languages are Pijin of the Solomon Islands, Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea, and Bislamaof Vanuatu. The other Creoles of Australia (Roper River Kriol etc.) are more distantly related, being descendants of the Pidgin English that developed in and around Sydney after the colonisation of Australia.Tok Pisin (English /tɒk ˈpɪsɪn/;[2] Tok Pisin [ˌtokpiˈsin]) is a creole spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. It is an official language of Papua New Guinea and the most widely used language in that country. In parts of Western, Gulf, Central, Oro Province and Milne Bay Provinces, however, the use of Tok Pisin has a shorter history, and is less universal, especially among older people.Between five and six million people use Tok Pisin to some degree, although by no means do all of these speak it well. Between one and two million are exposed to it as a first language,[citation needed] in particular the children of parents or grandparents originally speaking different vernaculars (for example, a mother from Madang and a father from Rabaul). Urban families in particular, and those of police and defence force members, often communicate among themselves in Tok Pisin, either never gaining fluency in a vernacular ("tok ples"), or learning a vernacular as a second (or third) language, after Tok Pisin (and possibly English). Perhaps one million people now use Tok Pisin as a primary language.Pidgin (or Hawaii Creole) originated as a form of communication used between English speaking residents and non-English speaking immigrants in Hawaii.[4] It supplanted the pidgin Hawaiianused on the plantations and elsewhere in Hawaii. It has been influenced by many languages, including Portuguese, Hawaiian, and Cantonese. As people of other language backgrounds were brought in to work on the plantations, such as Japanese, Filipinos, and Koreans, Pidgin acquired words from these languages. Japanese loanwords in Hawaii lists some of those words originally from Japanese. It has also been influenced to a lesser degree by Spanish spoken by Mexican andPuerto Rican settlers in Hawaii. Even today, Pidgin retains some influences from these languages. For example, the word "stay" in Pidgin has a form and use similar to the Portuguese verb "ficar" or Spanish "estar", which mean "to be" but are used only when referring to a temporary state or location.In the 19th and 20th centuries, Pidgin started to be used outside the plantation between ethnic groups. Public school children learned Pidgin from their classmates, and eventually it became the primary language of most people in Hawaii, replacing the original languages. For this reason,linguists generally consider Hawaii Pidgin to be a creole language.Hawaii Pidgin English, Hawaii Creole English, HCE, or simply Pidgin, is a creole language based in part on English used by many residents of Hawaii. Although English and Hawaiian are the co-official languages of the state of Hawaii,[2] Pidgin is used by many Hawaiian residents in everyday conversation and is often used in advertising targeted at Hawaiians. In the Hawaiian language, "Hawaii Creole English" is called "ʻōlelo paʻi ʻai", which literally means "pounding-taro language".[3]Bajan (pronounced /ˈbeɪdʒən/) is an English-based creole language spoken on the Caribbean island of Barbados and in the United States coastal regions of North Carolina, South Carolina,Georgia, and northeast Florida where it is known as Gullah.[citation needed] In general, the people of Barbados speak standard English on TV and radio, in courthouses, in government, and in day to day business, while Bajan creole is reserved for less formal situations, in music, or in social commentary.Like many other English-based Caribbean creole languages, Bajan consists of a West Africansubstrate and an English superstrate. Bajan is similar but distinguishable from the creoles of neighbouring Caribbean islands, as many of the other Caribbean creoles are theorized to haveHiberno-English or Scottish English as their superstrate variety, for example Jamaican Patois[citation needed].BarbadosCoastal North Carolina, USCoastal South Carolina, USCoastal Georgia, USNortheast Florida, USLlanito has significant Jewish influence, because of a long standing Jewish population in Gibraltar. They introduced words and expressions from Haketia, a largely extinct Judeo-Spanish language spoken by the Sephardic communities of Northern Morocco, such as Tetuan andTangiers and the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla in North Africa.Andalusian Spanish is the main constituent of Llanito, but is also heavily influenced by British English. However, it borrows words and expressions of many other languages, with over 500 words of Genoese (Ligurian) and Hebrew origin.[3] Its other main language constituents areMaltese and Portuguese. It often also involves code-switching to English. Some Llanito words are also widely used in the neighbouring Spanish town of La Línea de la Concepción (due to the influx of people from La Línea working in Gibraltar over many years).[4]Llanito or Yanito (pronounced [ʎaˈnito] or [ʝaˈnito]) is a form of Andalusian Spanish heavily laced with words from English and other languages, spoken in the British overseas territory ofGibraltar.[1] It consists of an eclectic mix of Andalusian Spanish and British English, marked by a great deal of code switching and loanwords from many other Mediterranean languages. However, it does not meet the criteria for being a creole.[2]Gibraltarians also call themselves Llanitos.During the period known as Blackbirding, in the 1870s and 1880s, hundreds of thousands of Pacific islanders (many of them from the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu) archipelago) were enslaved and forced to work on plantations, mainly in Queensland, Australia and Fiji.[5] With several languages being spoken in these plantations, a pidgin was formed, combining English vocabulary[6] with grammatical structures typical of languages in the region.[7] This early plantation pidgin is the origin not only of Bislama, but also of Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea andPijin of the Solomon Islands, though not of Torres Strait Creole north of Australia.Papiamento /pæpjəˈmɛntoʊ/,[3] or Papiamentu, is the most widely spoken language on theCaribbean ABC islands, having official status on the islands of Aruba and Curaçao. The language is also recognized on Bonaire by the Dutch government.[2]Papiamento is a language derived from African and Portuguese languages[4] with some influences from Amerindian languages, English, Dutch and Spanish.[5] Papiamento has two maindialects: Papiamento, spoken primarily on Aruba; and Papiamentu, spoken primarily on Bonaire and Curaçao.Negerhollands (English translation: Negro-Dutch) is a Dutch-based creole language that was once spoken in the Danish West Indies, now known as the U.S. Virgin Islands. Dutch is its superstrate language with Danish, English, French, Spanish, and African elements incorporated. Notwithstanding its name, Negerhollands draws primarily from the Zeelandic rather than theHollandic dialect.
Creole speaking -Portugese language influenced territoriesgive insight to Ashkenazi/Sephardic jews creating Slavery of Ham Jews. Fabrication by jews' bible is religious cilt tool to control jew diaspora stemming from Islam Egyptian era evolved from Ice age Eskiko-Inuit mankind duting stone age; after stone sge during Egyptian rule gave rise to Egypyian Islam vs Slaved jews that fabricated the bible narrating Noah's three sons of Sephardic jews of Russia-Homo jesuit Catholics, Ashkenazi jews of Gaul Feench German Nordics ,
And Ashkenazi skavery of non-Caucasian Sephardic jews named Ham Jews of Creole-Pourtugese language diaspora making up Africa, Carribean, Eskimo-Innuit-Natives different from Ashkenazi jews that still practice slavery as practiced in Roman Empire.
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.Portuguese (português or língua portuguesa [ˈɫĩɡwɐ puɾtuˈɣezɐ]) is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Mozambique, Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe.[2] It also has co-official language status in Macau and East Timor. As the result of expansion during colonial times, Portuguese speakers are also found in Goa,Daman and Diu in India,[3] and in Malacca in Malaysia.Portuguese is a part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of colloquial Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia. With approximately 210 to 215 million native speakers and 240 million total speakers, Portuguese is usually listed as the seventh most spoken language in the world (or sixth, being very close to Bengali in native speakers), the third most spoken European language[4] and the major language of the Southern Hemisphere. It is also the most spoken language in South America and the second most spoken in Latin America, afterCastilian, as well as an official language of the European Union and Mercosul.Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes once called Portuguese "the sweet and gracious language" and Spanish playwright Lope de Vega referred to it as "sweet", while the Brazilian writer Olavo Bilac poetically described it as "a última flor do Lácio, inculta e bela" (the last flower of Latium, rustic and beautiful). Portuguese is also termed "the language of Camões", after one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language, Luís Vaz de Camões.[5][6][7]In March 2006, the Museum of the Portuguese Language, an interactive museum about the Portuguese language, was founded in São Paulo, Brazil, the city with the greatest number of Portuguese language speakers in the world.[8]The trema on Ü was used in Brazilian Portuguese up to December 31, 2008Medieval GalicianPortugueseIndo-EuropeanItalicRomanceWestern RomanceIbero-RomanceWest IberianGalician-PortuguesePortugueseKreyol (Liberian Pidgin English, Vernacular Liberian English) is an English-based pidgin spoken in Liberia.[2] It is spoken by 1,500,000 people as a second language (1984 census). It is historically and linguistically related to Merico, a creole spoken in Liberia, but is grammatically distinct from it. There are regional dialects such as the Kru Pidgin English used by the Krufishermen.[3]Liberian Kreyol language developed from Liberian Interior Pidgin English, the Liberian version ofWest African Pidgin English though it has been significantly influenced by Liberian Settler English. Its phonology owes much to Liberia's Niger–Congo languages. It has been analyzed having a post-creole continuum. As such, rather than being a pidgin wholly distinct from English, it is a range of varieties that extend from the highly pidginized to one that shows many similarities to English as spoken elsewhere in West Africa.Kreyol originated in Liberia among the Settlers, the free English-speaking African Americans from the southern United States who emigrated to Liberia between 1819 and 1860. It has since borrowed some words from French and from other West African languages.Kreyol is spoken mostly as an inter-tribal lingua franca in the interior of Liberia.[3]Seychellois Creole, also known as Kreol or Seselwa, is the French-based creole language of theSeychelles. It shares official language status with English and French (in contrast to Mauritian Creole, which has no official status in Mauritius).French CreoleBourbonnais CreolesSeychellois CreoleGuinea-Bissau Creole (native name kriol, kiriol or kriolu varying with dialects; crioulo da Guiné inPortuguese) is the lingua franca of the West African country of Guinea Bissau. It is a Portuguese-based creole language, closely related to Cape Verdean creole. Kriolu is spoken as a first language by approximately 15% (190,000) of Bissau-Guineans and as a second language by approximately 45% (600,000), and is the de facto language of national identity.[1] It is also spoken in parts of Senegal, primarily as a trade language. Portuguese itself is the official language of Guinea Bissau, although it is not spoken regularly by a majority of the population.Krio Dayak aka Keriu is a Kayan language of the Krio Dayak people in West Kalimantan,Indonesia.AustronesianMalayo-PolynesianKayan–MurikMuller-Schwaner 'Punan'Krio Dayak
Primarily these come from English, but are also borrowed from Spanish, Portuguese, Hindi,Arawak and African languages as well as Scottish and Irish dialects.Jamaican Patois, known locally as Patois (Patwa or Patwah) or Jamaican, and called Jamaican Creole by linguists, is an English-lexified creole language with West African influences spoken primarily in Jamaica and the Jamaican diaspora. It is not to be confused with Jamaican Englishnor with the Rastafarian use of English. The language developed in the 17th century, when slaves from West and Central Africa were exposed to, learned and nativized the vernacular and dialectalforms of English spoken by their masters: British English, Scots and Hiberno-English. Jamaican Patois features a creole continuum (or a linguistic continuum)[2][3][4]—meaning that the variety of the language closest to the lexifier language (the acrolect) cannot be distinguished systematically from intermediate varieties (collectively referred to as the mesolect) nor even from the most divergent rural varieties (collectively referred to as the basilect). Jamaicans themselves usually refer to their dialect as patois, a French term without a precise linguistic definition.Jamaican pronunciation and vocabulary are significantly different from English, despite heavy use of English words or derivatives. Jamaican Patois displays similarities to the pidgin andcreole languages of West Africa, due to their common descent from the blending of Africansubstrate languages with European languages.[citation needed]Significant
Jamaican-speaking communities exist among Jamaican expatriates in Miami, New York City, Toronto, Hartford, Washington, D.C., Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, and Panama(in the Caribbean coast), also London,[5] Birmingham, Manchester, and Nottingham. A mutually intelligible variety is found in San Andrés y Providencia Islands, Colombia, brought to the island by descendants of Jamaican Maroons (escaped slaves) in the 18th century. Mesolectal forms are similar to very basilectal Belizean Kriol.Jamaican Patois exists mostly as a spoken language. Although standard British English is used for most writing in Jamaica, Jamaican Patois has been gaining ground as a literary language for almost a hundred years. Claude McKay published his book of Jamaican poems Songs of Jamaica in 1912. Patois and English are frequently used for stylistic contrast (codeswitching) in new forms of internet writing.[6]
Cape Verdean Creole is a creole language of Portuguese basis and West African languages, spoken on the islands of Cape Verde. It is the native language of virtually all Cape Verdeans, and it is used as a second language by the Cape Verdean diaspora.The language has particular importance for creolistics studies since it is the oldest (still-spoken) creole,[2] and the most widely spoken Portuguese-based creole.
Belize Kriol is derived mainly from English. Its substrate languages are the Native American language Miskito, and the various West African and Bantu languages which were brought into the country by slaves. These include Akan, Efik, Ewe, Fula, Ga, Hausa, Igbo, Kikongo and Wolof.[5]There are numerous theories as to how creole languages form. A language emerged from the contact of English landowners and their West African slaves to ensure basic communication. TheBaymen first began to settle in the area of Belize City in the 1650s. Decker (2005:3)[3] proposes that the creole spoken in Belize previous to 1786 was probably more like Jamaican than the Belize Kriol of today. By the Convention of London in 1786 the British were supposed to cease all logwood cutting operations along the Caribbean coast of Central America, except for the Belize settlement. Many of the settlers from the Miskito Coast moved to Belize, bringing their Miskito Coast Creole with them. The immigrants outnumbered the Baymen five to one.[6] The local Kriol speech shifted to become something more like the Miskito Coast Creole.[2]Belize Kriol English, Kriol or Belizean Creole is an English-based creole language closely related to Miskito Coastal Creole, Jamaican Patois, San Andrés-Providencia Creole, Bocas del Toro Creole, Colón Creole, Rio Abajo Creole and Limón Coastal Creole.Population estimates are difficult; virtually all of the more than 3 Creoles in Belize speak Kriol. In a 2000 Belize Census, 24.9% claimed Creole ethnicity and 33% claimed Kriol as their first language. Possibly as many as 85,000 Creoles have migrated to the United States and may or may not still speak the language. Kriol is the lingua franca of Belize and is the first language of some Garifunas, Mestizos, Maya, and other ethnic groups. It is a second language for most others in the country.[2]The grammar of Louisiana Creole is very similar to that of Haitian Creole. Definite articles in Louisiana Creole vary between the le, la and les used in standard French (a testament of possible decreolization in some areas) and a and la for the singular, and yé for the plural. In St. Martin Parish, the masculine definite article, whether le or -a, is often omitted altogether.In theory, Creole places its definite articles after the noun, unlike French. Given Louisiana Creole's complex linguistic relationship with Colonial French and Cajun French, however, this is often no longer the case. Since there is no system of noun gender, articles only vary on phonetic criteria. The article a is placed after words ending in a vowel, and la is placed after words ending in a consonant.Speakers of Louisiana Creole are mainly concentrated in south and southwest Louisiana, where the population of Creolophones is distributed across the region. There are also numbers of Creolophones in Natchitoches Parish on Cane River and sizable communities of Louisiana Creole-speakers in Southeast Texas Beaumont,Texas (Houston, Port Arthur, Galveston) and theChicago area. California has the most Creole speakers of any state outside Louisiana, and the number of speakers may surpass that of Louisiana[dubious ]. Louisiana Creole speakers in California reside in Los Angeles, San Diego and San Bernardino counties and in Northern California (San Francisco Bay Area, Sacramento County, Plumas County, Tehama County, Mono County, and Yuba County.)
Mauritian creole is the lingua franca of Mauritius. Mauritius, formerly a British colony, has kept English as its official language, although French is more widely spoken. Mauritians tend to speak Creole at home and French in the workplace. French and English are spoken in schools. Though a large percentage of Mauritians are of Indian descent, they primarily speak Creole, which is their ancestral tongue in the sense that their ancestors along with those of African, European and Chinese descent helped build the creole languages together centuries ago, when Mauritius was the meeting place of peoples from different continents who together founded a nation with its own culture and history.Haitian Creole (kreyòl ayisyen; pronounced: [kɣejɔl ajisjɛ̃] French: créole haïtien), often called simply Creole or kreyòl, is a language spoken by about twelve million people,[citation needed]Haitian Creole is one of Haiti's two official languages, along with French. It is a creole based largely on 18th-century French and some West African languages, and has secondary influ中山经Zhongshan jingClassic of the Mountains: CentraThe Classic of Mountains and Seas is also the source and origin of the ancient Chinese mythology. Some of them are really popular and well known in Asian culture, such as Kua Fu,Nüwa, Houyi and Yellow Emperor. There were up to 450 gods and deities mentioned in Classic and they used something called Jingmi (精米) or Jing (糈) which is similar to sorcery. It particularly remarked about a monster, "nine-headed snake" (九頭的蛇), twice in the book. The creature is believed to be Kuzuryū.Chinese scholar Ming Hua Zhang claimed that the Zhulong, which was a mythical creature mentioned in Classic of the Great Wilderness: North, is symbolizing the aurora (northern light).[6]The Zhulong is (according to Classic) "red, with a human face and a snake body that is thousand mile long. It is the god of Zhong Mountain." He believes that this description matches with the characteristics of aurora.Left: A Red-haired and blue-eyed Tocharianand right: Fair-skinned East Asian (Han?,Tibetan?) Buddhist monks, Bezeklik, Eastern Tarim Basin, 9th–10th centuries CE.[12]Traversed by the Northern Silk Road,[18] the Tarim and Dzungaria regions were known as theWestern Regions. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty (206 BC−AD 220), the region was subservient to the Hun, a powerful nomadic people based in modern Mongolia.Huns who appeared on the borders of Europe in the 4th century with the Xiongnu who migrated out of the Mongoliaregion some three hundred years before. Due to the conflict with Han China, the Northern branch of the Xiongnu had retreated north-westward; their descendants may have migrated throughEurasia and consequently they may have some degree of cultural and genetic continuity with the Huns.[11] The evidence for continuity between Huns and Xiongnu has not been definitive.[11] A school of modern scholarship instead uses an ethnogenetic, rather than essentialist, approach in explaining the Huns' origin.The cause of the Hunnic move into Europe may have been expansion of the Rouran, who had created a massive empire across the Asian continent in the mid-4th century, including the Tatar lands as well, which they took over from the Xianbei. It is supposed that this westward spread of Rouran power pushed the Huns into Europe over the years.[12][page needed]The ancient Sogdian letters from the 4th century mention Huns, while the Chinese sources write Xiongnu, in the context of the sacking of Luoyang.[26][27] However, there is a historical gap of 300 years between the Chinese and later sources. As Peter Heather writes, "The ancestors of our [4th century European] Huns could even have been a part of the [1st century] Xiongnu confederation, without being the 'real' Xiongnu. Even if we do make some sort of connection between the 4th century Huns and the 1st century Xiongnu, an awful lot of water has passed under an awful lot of bridges in the three hundred years' worth of lost history."[18]:149The Barbarian invasions of the 5th century were triggered by the destruction of the Gothic kingdoms by the Huns in 372-375. The city of Rome was captured and looted by the Visigoths in 410 and by the Vandals in 455.In 395 the Huns began their first large-scale attack on the East Roman Empire.[20] Huns attacked in Thrace, overran Armenia, and pillaged Cappadocia. They entered parts of Syria, threatenedAntioch, and swarmed through the province of Euphratesia. The forces of Emperor Theodosiuswere fully committed in the West so the Huns moved unopposed until the end of 398 when the eunuch Eutropius gathered together a force composed of Romans and Goths and succeeded in restoring peace. It is uncertain though, whether or not Eutropius' forces defeated the Huns or whether the Huns left on their own. There is no record of a notable victory by Eutropius and there is evidence that the Hunnish forces were already leaving the area by the time he gathered his forces.[30]:184Whether put to flight by Eutropius, or leaving on their own, the Huns had left the Eastern Roman Empire by 398. After this, the Huns invaded the Sassanid Empire. This invasion was initially successful, coming close to the capital of the empire at Ctesiphon, however, they were defeated badly during the Persian counter-attack and retreated toward the Caucasus Mountains via theDerbend Pass.[30]:184During their brief diversion from the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns appear to have threatened tribes further west, as evidenced by Radagaisus' entering Italy at the end of 405 and the crossing of the Rhine into Gaul by Vandals, Sueves, and Alans in 406.[20] The Huns do not then appear to have been a single force with a single ruler. Many Huns were employed as mercenaries by both East and West Romans and by the Goths. Uldin, the first Hun known by name,[20] headed a group of Huns and Alans fighting against Radagaisus in defense of Italy. Uldin was also known for defeating Gothic rebels giving trouble to the East Romans around the Danube and beheading the Goth Gainas around 400-401. Gainas' head was given to the East Romans for display in Constantinople in an apparent exchange of gifts.In the west, Hunnoi are first mentioned by Tacitus as being near the Caspian Sea in 91 AD. By AD 139, the geographer Ptolemy writes that the "Chunoi" (Χοῦνοι or Χουνοἰ, both plural) are between the Bastarnae and the Roxolani in the Pontic area under the rule of Suni. He lists the beginning of the 2nd century, although it is not known for certain if these people were the Huns. It is possible that the similarity between the names "Huni" (Χοῦνοι) and "Hunnoi" (Ουννοι) is only a coincidence considering that while the West Romans often wrote Chunni or Chuni, the East Romans never used the guttural Χ at the beginning of the name.[20]With a part of the Ostrogoths on the run, the Huns next came to the territory of the Visigoths, led by Athanaric. Athanaric, not to be caught off guard, sent an expeditionary force beyond the Dniester. The Huns avoided this small force and attacked Athanaric directly. The Goths retreated into the Carpathians.[30]:180 Support for the Gothic chieftains diminished as refugees headed intoThrace and towards the safety of the Roman garrisons.After these invasions, the Huns begin to be noted as Foederati and mercenaries. As early as 380, a group of Huns was given Foederati status and allowed to settle in Pannonia. Hunnish mercenaries were also seen on several occasions in the succession struggles of the Eastern and Western Roman Empire during the late 4th century. However, it is most likely that these were individual mercenary bands, not a Hunnish kingdom.[30]:181In 395 the Huns began their first large-scale attack on the East Roman Empire.[20] Huns attacked in Thrace, overran Armenia, and pillaged Cappadocia. They entered parts of Syria, threatenedAntioch, and swarmed through the province of Euphratesia. The forces of Emperor Theodosiuswere fully committed in the West so the Huns moved unopposed until the end of 398 when the eunuch Eutropius gathered together a force composed of Romans and Goths and succeeded in restoring peace. It is uncertain though, whether or not Eutropius' forces defeated the Huns or whether the Huns left on their own. There is no record of a notable victory by Eutropius and there is evidence that the Hunnish forces were already leaving the area by the time he gathered his forces.[30]:184Whether put to flight by Eutropius, or leaving on their own, the Huns had left the Eastern Roman Empire by 398. After this, the Huns invaded the Sassanid Empire. This invasion was initially successful, coming close to the capital of the empire at Ctesiphon, however, they were defeated badly during the Persian counter-attack and retreated toward the Caucasus Mountains via theDerbend Pass.[30]:184During their brief diversion from the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns appear to have threatened tribes further west, as evidenced by Radagaisus' entering Italy at the end of 405 and the crossing of the Rhine into Gaul by Vandals, Sueves, and Alans in 406.[20] The Huns do not then appear to have been a single force with a single ruler. Many Huns were employed as mercenaries by both East and West Romans and by the Goths. Uldin, the first Hun known by name,[20] headed a group of Huns and Alans fighting against Radagaisus in defense of Italy. Uldin was also known for defeating Gothic rebels giving trouble to the East Romans around the Danube and beheading the Goth Gainas around 400-401. Gainas' head was given to the East Romans for display in Constantinople in an apparent exchange of gifts.With his brother gone and as the only ruler of the united Huns, Attila possessed undisputed control over his subjects. In 447, Attila turned the Huns back toward the Eastern Roman Empireonce more. His invasion of the Balkans and Thrace was devastating. The Eastern Roman Empire was already beset by internal problems, such as famine and plague, as well as riots and a series of earthquakes in Constantinople itself. Only a last-minute rebuilding of its walls had preserved Constantinople unscathed. Victory over a Roman army had already left the Huns virtually unchallenged in Eastern Roman lands and only disease forced a retreat, after they had conducted raids as far south as Thermopylae. Our only lengthy first-hand report of conditions among the Huns is by Priscus, who formed part of an embassy to Attila.The war finally came to an end for the Eastern Romans in 449 with the signing of the Third Peace of Anatolius.Throughout their raids on the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns had maintained good relations with the Western Empire, this was due in no small part to their friendship with Flavius Aetius, a powerful Roman general (sometimes even referred to as the de facto ruler of the Western Empire) who in his youth had spent some time as a hostage with the Huns. However, this all changed in 450 when Honoria, sister of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, sent Attila a ring and requested his help to escape her betrothal to a senator. Although it is not known whether Honoria intended this as a proposal of marriage to Attila, that is how the Hun King interpreted it. He claimed half the Western Roman Empire as dowry. To add to the failing relations, a dispute arose between Attila and Aetius about the rightful heir to the kingdom of the Salian Franks. Finally, the repeated raids on the Eastern Roman Empire had left it with little to plunder.Huns is by Priscus, who formed part of an embassy to Attila.The war finally came to an end for the Eastern Romans in 449 with the signing of the Third Peace of Anatolius.Throughout their raids on the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns had maintained good relations with the Western Empire, this was due in no small part to their friendship with Flavius Aetius, a powerful Roman general (sometimes even referred to as the de facto ruler of the Western Empire) who in his youth had spent some time as a hostage with the Huns. However, this all changed in 450 when Honoria, sister of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, sent Attila a ring and requested his help to escape her betrothal to a senator. Although it is not known whether Honoria intended this as a proposal of marriage to Attila, that is how the Hun King interpreted it. He claimed half the Western Roman Empire as dowry. To add to the failing relations, a dispute arose between Attila and Aetius about the rightful heir to the kingdom of the Salian Franks. Finally, the repeated raids on the Eastern Roman Empire had left it with little to plunder.In 451, Attila's forces entered Gaul, with his army recruiting from the Franks, Goths andBurgundian tribes en route. Once in Gaul, the Huns first attacked Metz, then his armies continued westwards, passing both Paris and Troyes to lay siege to Orléans.Aetius was given the duty of relieving Orléans by Emperor Valentinian III. Bolstered by Frankish and Visigothic troops (under King Theodoric), Aetius' own Roman army met the Huns at theBattle of the Catalaunian Plains also known as the Battle of Châlons. Although a tactical defeat for Attila, thwarting his invasion of Gaul and forcing his retreat back to non-Roman lands, the macrohistorical significance of the allied and Roman victory is a matter of debate.[31][32][33]The next year, Attila renewed his claims to Honoria and territory in the Western Roman Empire. Leading his horde across the Alps and into Northern Italy, he sacked and razed the cities ofAquileia, Vicetia, Verona, Brixia, Bergamum, and Milan. Hoping to avoid the sack of Rome herself, Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as the Bishop of Rome Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua, and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the emperor. Prosper of Aquitaine gives a short, reliable description of the historic meeting, but gives all the credit of the successful negotiation to Leo. Priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of Alaric—who died shortly after sacking Rome in 410—gave him pause. In reality, Italy had suffered from a terrible famine in 451 and her crops were faring little better in 452; Attila's devastating invasion of the plains of northern Italy this year did not improve the harvest. To advance on Rome would have required supplies which were not available in Italy, and taking the city would not have improved Attila's supply situation. Therefore, it was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat back to his homeland. Secondly, an East Roman force had crossed the Danube under the command of another officer also named Aetius—who had participated in the Council of Chalcedon the previous year—and proceeded to defeat the Huns who had been left behind by Attila to safeguard their home territories. Attila, hence, faced heavy human and natural pressures to retire from Italy before moving south of the Po. Attila retreated without Honoria or her dowry.The new Eastern Roman Emperor Marcian then halted tribute payments. From the Carpathian Basin, Attila mobilised to attack Constantinople. Before this planned attack he married a German girl named Ildico. In 453, he died of a nosebleed on his wedding night.
After Attila
After Attila's death, his son Ellac overcame his brothers Dengizich and Ernakh (Irnik) to become king of the Huns. However, former subjects soon united under Ardaric, leader of the Gepids, against the Huns at the Battle of Nedao in 454. This defeat and Ellac's death ended the European supremacy of the Huns, and soon afterwards they disappear from contemporary records. The Pannonian basin then was occupied by the Gepids, whilst various Gothic groups remained in the Balkans also.Jordanes, a Goth writing in Italy in 551, a century after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire, describes the Huns as a "savage race, which dwelt at first in the swamps, a stunted, foul and puny tribe, scarcely human, and having no language save one which bore but slight resemblance to human speech.""They made their foes flee in horror because their swarthy aspect was fearful, and they had, if I may call it so, a sort of shapeless lump, not a head, with pin-holes rather than eyes. Their hardihood is evident in their wild appearance, and they are beings who are cruel to their children on the very day they are born. For they cut the cheeks of the males with a sword, so that before they receive the nourishment of milk they must learn to endure wounds. Hence they grow old beardless and their young men are without comeliness, because a face furrowed by the sword spoils by its scars the natural beauty of a beard. They are short in stature, quick in bodily movement, alert horsemen, broad shouldered, ready in the use of bow and arrow, and have firm-set necks which are ever erect in pride. Though they live in the form of men, they have the cruelty of wild beasts."[35]:127–8Jordanes also recounted how Priscus had described Attila the Hun, the Emperor of the Huns from 434-453, as: "Short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with grey; and he had a flat nose and tanned skin, showing evidence of his origin."[36]Artificial cranial deformation was practiced by the Huns and sometimes by tribes with whom they influenced.[37][38][39][40] However, Ammianus may have been incorrect in saying that the facial scars dated from infancy. Maenchen-Helfen writes: "Ammianus' description begins with a strange misunderstanding... This was repeated by Claudian and Sidonius and reinterpreted by Cassiodorus. Ammianus' explanation of the thin beards is wrong. Like so many other people, the Huns inflicted wounds on their live flesh as a sign of grief when their kinsmen were dying." [41]When a leader died, it was tradition to mourn them with blood instead of tears and so the warriors would slash their cheeks to "cry blood".
Society and culture
The Huns kept herds of cattle, horses, goats and sheep.[20] Their other sources of food consisted of wild game and the roots of wild plants. For clothes they had pointed caps, trousers or leggings made from ibex skin, and either linen or rodent skin tunics. Ammianus reports that they wore these clothes until the clothes fell to pieces. Priscus describes Attila's clothes as different from those of his men only in being clean.[42] Women would embroider the edges of the garments and often stitch small colorful stone beads on them as well.[citation needed]In warfare they used the bow and javelin.[43] Early writers such as Ammianus (followed by Thompson) stated that they used primitive, bone-tipped arrowheads. Maenchen-Helfen outright disputes this claim. He states: "Had the Huns been unable to forge their swords and cast their arrow-heads, they never could have crossed the Don. The idea that the Hun horsemen fought their way to the walls of Constantinople and to the Marne with bartered and captured swords is absurd." (See: Maenchen-Helfen The World of the Huns p 12) They also fought using iron swords and lassos in close combat. The Hun sword was a long, straight, double-edged sword of earlySassanian style. These swords were hung from a belt using the scabbard-slide method, which kept the weapon vertical.[citation needed] The Huns also employed a smaller short sword or large dagger which was hung horizontally across the belly. A symbol of status among the Huns was a gilded bow. Sword and dagger grips also were decorated with gold.With the arrival of the Huns, a tradition of using more bone laths in composite bows arrived in Europe. Bone laths had long been used in the Levantine and Roman tradition, two to stiffen each of the two siyahs (the tips of the bow), for a total of four laths per bow. (The Scythian and Sarmatian bows, used for centuries on the European steppes until the arrival of the Huns, had no such laths.) A style that arrived in Europe with the Huns (after centuries of use on the borders of China), was stiffened by two laths on each siyah, and additionally reinforced on the grip by three laths, for a total of seven per bow.[24]The language had strong ties to Old Bulgarian and to modern Chuvash, but also had some important connections, especially lexical and morphological, to Ottoman and Yakut... The Turkic situation has no validity for Hunnic, which belonged to a separate Altaic group." On the basis of the existing name records, a number of scholars suggest that the Huns spoke a Turkic language of the Oghur branch, which also includes Bulgar, Avar, Khazar and Chuvash languages.[60] English scholar Peter Heather called the Huns "the first group of Turkic, as opposed to Iranian, nomads to have intruded into Europe".[17]:5 Maenchen-Helfen held that many of the tribal names among the Huns were Turkic.[19] However, the evidence is scant (a few names and three non-Turkic words), thus scholars currently conclude that the Hunnic language cannot presently be classified, and attempts to classify it as Turkic and Mongolic are speculative.[61][62][63]A variety of languages were spoken within the Hun pax.[64] Under Attila, Gothic was the lingua franca of the Hunnic elite.[5][6][7][8] Roman sources, e.g. Priscus, recorded that Latin, Gothic, "Hun" and other local 'Scythian" languages were spoken. Based on some etymological interpretation of the words strava and medos, and subsequent historical appearance, the latter has been taken to include a form of pre-Slavic language.[14]The King of the Huns transfixing Saint Ursula with an arrow after she refused to marry him, in Caravaggio's 1610 "The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula".Chroniclers writing centuries later often mentioned or alluded to Huns or their purported descendants. These include:Theophylact SimocattaAnnales FuldensesAnnales AlemanniciAnnals of SalzburgLiutprand of Cremona's AntapodosisRegino of Prüm's chronicleWidukind of Corvey's Saxon ChronicleNestor the Chronicler's Primary ChronicleLegends of Saints Cyril and MethodiusAventinus's Chronicon Bavaria,Constantine VII's De Administrando Imperio, andLeo VI the Wise's Tactica.Mediaeval Hungarians continued this tradition (see Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, Chronicon Pictum, Gesta Hungarorum).Memory of the Hunnic conquest was transmitted orally among Germanic peoples and is an important component in the Old Norse Völsunga saga and Hervarar saga and in the Middle High German Nibelungenlied. These stories all portray Migration Period events from a millennium earlier.In the Hervarar saga, the Goths make first contact with the bow-wielding Huns and meet them in an epic battle on the plains of the Danube.In the Nibelungenlied, Kriemhild marries Attila (Etzel in German) after her first husband Siegfriedwas murdered by Hagen with the complicity of her brother, King Gunther. She then uses her power as Etzel's wife to take a bloody revenge in which not only Hagen and Gunther but allBurgundian knights find their death at festivities to which she and Etzel had invited them.In the Völsunga saga, Attila (Atli in Norse) defeats the Frankish king Sigebert I (Sigurðr or Siegfried) and the Burgundian King Guntram (Gunnar or Gunther), but is later assassinated by Queen Fredegund (Gudrun or Kriemhild), the sister of the latter and wife of the former.In the German "Saga of Tidreck of Bern", its written versions beginning from the 13th century, the Huns are called Frisians. Frisia was often called Hunaland in the Middle Ages.[65][66]During a 16th-century peasant revolt in southern Norway, the rebels claimed, during their trial, that they expected the "Hun king Atle" to come from the north with a great host[citation needed].For instance, the Nominalia of the Bulgarian Khans may indicate that they believed that they descended from Attila. There are many similarities between Hunnic and Bulgar cultures, such as the practice of artificial cranial deformation. This along with other archaeological evidence suggest continuity between the two cultures. The most characteristic weapons of the Huns and early Bulgars (a particular type of composite bow and a long, straight, double edged sword of the Sassanid type, etc.) are virtually identical in appearance.[citation needed]The Magyars (Hungarians) in particular lay claim to Hunnic heritage. Although Magyar tribes only began to settle in the geographical area of present-day Hungary in the very end of the 9th century, some 450 years after the dissolution of the Hunnic tribal confederation, Hungarian prehistory includes Magyar origin myths, which may have preserved some elements of historical truth. The Huns who invaded Europe represented a loose coalition of various peoples, so some Magyars might have been part of it, or may later have joined descendants of Attila's men, who still claimed the name of Huns. The national anthem of Hungary describes the Hungarians as "blood of Bendegúz'" (the medieval and modern Hungarian version of Mundzuk, Attila's father). Attila's brother Bleda is called Buda in modern Hungarian. Some medieval chronicles and literary works derive the name of the city of Buda from him. There is a legend among the Székely peoplethat says: "After the death of Attila, in the bloody Battle of Krimhilda, 3000 Hun warriors managed to escape, to settle in a place called "Csigle-mező" (today Transylvania) and they changed their name from Huns to Szekler (Székely)." When Magyars came to Pannonia in the 8th century, the Szeklers joined them, and together they conquered Pannonia (today Hungary). There is also a lineage of that follows five generations rulers of the Huns and Magyars: Attila, his son Csaba, his son Ed, his son Ügyek, his son Előd, his son Álmos. Álmos was the ruler of the Magyars. Álmos son was Árpád. Taken from the ancient Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum ("The Deeds of the Huns and Hungarians")On July 27, 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion in China, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany gave the order to act ruthlessly towards the rebels: "Mercy will not be shown, prisoners will not be taken. Just as a thousand years ago, the Huns under Attila won a reputation of might that lives on in legends, so may the name of Germany in China, such that no Chinese will even again dare so much as to look askance at a German."[67]The term "Hun" from this speech was later used for the Germans by British propaganda duringWorld War I. The comparison was helped by the spiked Pickelhaube helmet worn by German forces until 1916, which would be reminiscent of images depicting ancient Hun helmets, some British[who?] found. This usage, emphasising the idea that the Germans were barbarians, was reinforced by Allied propaganda throughout the war. The French songwriter Theodore Botreldescribed the Kaiser as "an Attila, without remorse", launching "cannibal hordes".[68]The usage of the term "Hun" to describe Germans resurfaced during World War II. For exampleWinston Churchill 1941 said in a broadcast speech: "There are less than 70,000,000 malignant Huns, some of whom are curable and others killable, most of whom are already engaged in holding down Austrians, Czechs, Poles and the many other ancient races they now bully and pillage."[69] Later that year Churchill referred to the invasion of the Soviet Union as "the dull, drilled, docile brutish masses of the Hun soldiery, plodding on like a swarm of crawling locusts."[70] During this time American President Franklin D. Roosevelt also referred to the German people in this way, saying that an Allied invasion into Southern France would surely "be successful and of great assistance to Eisenhower in driving the Huns from France."[71]Nevertheless, its use was less widespread than in the previous war. British and American World War II troops more often used the term "Jerry" or "Kraut" for their German opponents.Xinjiang was previously known as Xiyu (西域) or Qurighar / Qarbi Diyâr" (غەربىي دىيار), meaningWestern Region, under the Han Dynasty, which drove the Xiongnu empire out of the region in 60 BC. This was in an effort to secure the profitable routes of the Silk Road.[7] It was known asHuijiang (回疆), meaning "Muslim Frontier," during the Qing Dynasty before becoming the province of Xinjiang, which literally means "New Frontier" or "New Border," in the 1880s. According to the Chinese statesman Zuo Zongtang's report to the Emperor of Qing, Xingjiang means "An old frontier which returns recently".The general region of Xinjiang has been known by many names in earlier times including 西域 (Mandarin: xiyu) = 'Western Regions',[8] Khotan, Khotay, Chinese Tartary, High Tartary, East Chagatay, Mugholistan, Kashgaria, Altishahr ('the six cities' of the Tarim), Little Bokhara and Serindia.[9] The name "Xinjiang", which literally means "New Frontier," was given during the Qing Dynasty. Present-day Jinchuan County was known as "Jinchuan Xinjiang", etc. After 1821, the Qing changed the names of the other regained regions, and "Xinjiang" became the name specifically of present-day Xinjiang.[10]In 1955, Xinjiang province was renamed Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The name that was originally proposed was simply "Xinjiang Autonomous Region". Saifuddin Azizi, the first chairman of Xinjiang, registered his strong objections to the proposed name with Mao Zedongarguing that "autonomy is not given to mountains and rivers. It is given to particular nationalities." Mao agreed and the administrative region was named "Xinjiang UyghurAutonomous Region" to recognize its significant ethnic Uyghur population.ence from other languages. In school, all children learn both Creole and French.Antillean Creole is a creole language with a vocabulary based on French. It is spoken primarily in the Lesser Antilles. Its grammar and vocabulary include elements of Carib and African languages.Antillean Creole is related to Haitian Creole but has a number of distinctive features; however, they are mutually intelligible. The language was formerly more widely spoken in the Lesser Antilles, but its number of speakers is declining in Trinidad & Tobago and Grenada. While the islands of Dominica and Saint Lucia are officially English-speaking, there are efforts to preserve the use of Antillean Creole, as well as in Trinidad & Tobago and its neighbour Venezuela. In recent decades, it has gone from being seen as a sign of lower socio-economic status, banned in school playgrounds,[3] to a mark of national pride.Since the 1970s there has been a literary revival of Creole in the French-speaking islands of the Lesser Antilles, with writers such as Raphaël Confiant and Monchoachi employing the language.Edouard Glissant has written theoretically and poetically about its significance and its history.Dominican, Grenadian, St. Lucian, Trinidadian and Venezuelan speakers of Antillean Creole call the language Patois.[4]Antillean Creole is spoken, to varying degrees, in Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Îles des Saintes, Martinique, Saint-Barthélemy (St. Barts), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent, Trinidad and Tobagoand Venezuela (mainly in Macuro, Güiria and El Callao). Antillean Creole has approximately 1 million speakers. It is a means of communication for migrant populations traveling between neighbouring English- and French-speaking territories.
History
Antillean Kwéyòl was born out of the slavery era, Africans were assigned to the slavery plantations in the French Antilles; the French of their slave masters and their native tongues were somewhat useless as a method of communication since they spoke different tribal languages. As a result, they were forced to develop a new form of communication by relying on what they heard from their colonial masters and their fellow tribesmen. Sporadically, they would use words they thought they heard their colonial masters speak and combine them with their African expressions and sentence structure; thus, new words were wrought (fashioned) and given meaning.Gradually, this new method of communication amongst the slaves spread across the regions of the Caribbean. This “Creole” language (French for "indigenous") progressively grew into a more recognizable language.
Antillean Creole (also called "Creole Antillais" in French) which is Créole Guadeloupeen or Martiniquais (Guadeloupean or Martiniquan Creole), French-based, spoken in the French West Indies only.Haitian Creole language, French-based, an official language of HaitiMauritian Creole, French-based, spoken in MauritiusLouisiana Creole French, spoken in LouisianaBelizean Kriol language, spoken in BelizeCape Verdean Creole, spoken on the islands of Cape VerdeJamaican Creole, English-based, spoken in JamaicaKrio Dayak language, spoken by Krio Dayak people in West Kalimantan, IndonesiaLiberian Kreyol language, spoken in LiberiaSeychellois Creole, French-based, spoken in the SeychellesGuinea-Bissau Creole, spoken in Guinea-BissauNegerhollands, a Dutch-based creole, once spoken in the U.S. Virgin IslandsPapiamento, spoken in the ABC islands in the southern CaribbeanBislama, an English-based creole, spoken in VanuatuLlanito, a Spanish- and English-based creole, spoken in GibraltarBajan or Barbadian Creole, English-based, spoken in BarbadosHawaiian Creole, or Pidgin, a mixture of Native Hawaiian and American English similar to Tok PisinTok Pisin, an official language of Papua New GuineaTorres Strait Creole or Brokan, spoken in far north-east Australia, Torres Strait, and south-west PapuaNagamese creole, based on Assamese, used in Nagaland, IndiaAntillean Creole (also called "Creole Antillais" in French) which is Créole Guadeloupeen or Martiniquais (Guadeloupean or Martiniquan Creole), French-based, spoken in the French West Indies only.Annobonese
The Annobonese language is spoken by 9,000 people on the islands of Ano Bom and Bioko, inEquatorial Guinea. It is locally called Falar de Ano Bom (Fá d'Ambô or even Fla d'Ambu). It is aPortuguese-based creole, similar to Forro, with some borrowings from Spanish. In fact, Fá d'Ambô is derived from Forro as it shares the same structure (82% of lexicon). In the 15th century, the island was uninhabited and discovered by Portugal but, by the 18th century, Portugal exchanged it and some other territories in Africa for Uruguay with Spain. Spain wanted to get territory in Africa, and Portugal wanted to enlarge even more the territory that they saw as the “New Portugal” (Brazil). Nevertheless, the populace of Ano Bom was against the shift and was hostile toward the Spaniards. This hostility, combined with the isolation of mainland Equatorial Guinea and the proximity of São Tomé and Príncipe — just 400 km from the island — has assured the maintenance of its identity.Fá d'Ambô has gained some words of Spanish origin (10% of lexicon), but some words are dubious in origin because Spanish and Portuguese are closely related languages.See also: History of Equatorial Guinea
Nigerian Pidgin
Nigerian Pidgin is a pidgin language spoken in Nigeria, based on English. The Spanish influence can be seen, as Spanish slave ships traded off the coast of Nigeria. One example is the Nigerian word "sabi", which means "to know", which comes from the Portuguese and Spanish words "saber", which have the same meaning.
Papiamento
Papiamento or Papiamentu is a creole language spoken by 359,000 people.[citation needed]Primarily spoken in Curaçao and Bonaire by 179,000 people (as of 1998) and Aruba by 100,000 people (as of 2004).[citation needed]The Proto-Afro-Portuguese theory is the most widely accepted hypothesis about the genesis of Papiamentu.[4]This Creole is reportedly becoming more similar to Spanish as the time passes due to extensive contact with the Hispanophone countries (particularly Venezuela), but it was originally Portuguese-based.[citation needed]Because of the similarities between these Iberian languages, it is difficult to ascertain whether a certain feature is derived from Portuguese, Spanish or Ladino, after the adaptation to Papiamento rules.For more information see the Ethnologue Report on Papiamentu.[5]
Pichinglis
Pichinglis is spoken in the Bioko island, Equatorial Guinea. It originates in the arrival of Kriospeakers from the mainland. Krio is a Creole that derives most of its vocabulary from English, but the Spanish colonization of Guinea exerted Spanish influence in lexicon and grammar.
San Andrés–Providencia Creole
San Andrés–Providencia Creole is one of the main languages of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina (alongside Spanish and English) which uses expression and words from English (73%), Spanish (17%) and African descents.Palenquero (also Palenque) is a Spanish-based Creole spoken in Colombia.The ethnic group which speaks this Creole consists only of 2,500 people, as of 1989.It is spoken in Colombia, in the village of San Basilio de Palenque which is south and east ofCartagena, and in some neighborhoods of Barranquilla.The village was formed by escaped slaves (Maroons) and Native Americans. Since many slaves had not been subjected to a lot of contact with white people, the palenqueros spoke Creole languages from Spanish language and their African ones.Spanish speakers are unable to understand Palenquero. There are some influences from Kongoin Democratic Republic of Congo. As of 1998, 10% of the population of age under 25 years speaks Palenquero. Most common to the elderly.For more information see the Ethnologue Report on Palenquero.[3]number of creole languages are based on the Spanish language.
Spanish Creole languagesEdit
List of Spanish-based creole:
Chavacano
Chavacano (also Chabacano) is a Spanish-based Creole language and the name of the Six Dialects of Spanish evolved words turned into a Creole language spoken in the Philippines. The name of the language stems from the Spanish word Chabacano which means "tasteless", "common", or "vulgar".[1] Dialects of Chavacano are spoken in Cavite City and Ternate (both in Luzon); Zamboanga, Cotabato and Davao (in Mindanao), Isabela City and other part of Province of Basilan and other places. According to a 2007 census, there are 2,502,185 speakers excluding outside the Philippines. It is the major language of Zamboanga City. Chavacano is also spoken inCavite City and in parts of Ternate, Cavite and Sabah, Malaysia nearest to the Philippines, and even in Brunei and Latin America, because of recent migrations.Most of the vocabulary comes from Spanish, while the grammar is mostly based on the Austronesian structure. It is used in primary education, television, and radio. Recently English words are infiltrating the language.For more information see the article on Chavacano, or the Ethnologue Report on Chavacano.[2]
Palenquero
The Portuguese language was present in its colony, Macau, since the mid-16th century. A Portuguese creole, Patua, developed there, first by interaction with the local Cantonese people, and later modified by influx of refugees from the Dutch takeover of Portuguese colonies in Indonesia.Macanese (Macaista, Patuá): in Macau and, to a lesser extent, in Hong Kong.The earliest Portuguese creole in the region probably arose in the 16th century in Malacca,Malaysia, as well as in the Moluccas. After the takeover of those places by the Dutch in the 17th century, many creole-speaking slaves were taken to other places in Indonesia and South Africa, leading to several creoles that survived until recent times:Kristang (Cristão): in Malacca (Malaysia) and Singapore.Mardijker (extinct in 19th century): by the Mardijker people of Batavia (Jakarta) = Papiá Tugu(extinct in 1978): in Tugu, Indonesia.Portugis (extinct around 1950): in the Ambon, Ternate islands and Minahasa, IndonesiaBidau Portuguese (extinct in the 1960s): in the Bidau area of Dili, East Timor.The Malacca creole also had an influence on the creole of Macau (see below).The Portuguese were present in the island of Flores, Indonesia since the 16th century, mainly inLarantuka and Sikka; but the local creole language, if any, has not survived.Other Portuguese-based creoles were once spoken in Thailand (In KudeeJeen and Conception) and Bayingy in Burma.Southeast Asia Portuguese creoles: Papiá Kristang of Malaysia (1) and Macaista Chapado of Macao, SAR (2).
Significant Portuguese-based creole flourished among the so-called Burgher and Kaffircommunities of Sri Lanka:Sri Lanka Indo-Portuguese: around Batticaloa and Trincomalee (Portuguese Burghers) andPuttalam (Kaffirs).In the past, Portuguese creoles were also spoken in Burma and Bangladesh.The numerous Portuguese outposts in India and Sri Lanka gave rise to many Portuguese-based creole languages, of which only a few have survived to the present. The largest group were theNorteiro languages, spoken by the Norteiro people, the Christian Indo-Portuguese in the NorthKonkan. Those communities were centered around Baçaim, modern Vasai, which was then called the “Northern Court of Portuguese India” (in opposition to the "Southern Court" at Goa). The creole languages spoken in Baçaim, Salsete, Thana, Chevai, Mahim, Tecelaria, Dadar, Parel,Cavel, Bandora (modern Bandra), Gorai, Morol, Andheri, Versova, Malvan, Manori, Mazagão, andChaul are now extinct. The only surviving Norteiro creoles are:Diu Indo-Portuguese (almost extinct): in Diu.Daman Indo-Portuguese (Língua da Casa): in Daman.Kristi: in Korlai, Maharashtra.These surviving Norteiro creoles have suffered drastic changes in the last decades. Standard Portuguese re-influenced the creole of Daman in the mid-20th century.The Creoles of the Coast of Coromandel, such as of Meliapor, Madras, Tuticorin, Cuddalore,Karikal, Pondicheri, Tranquebar, Manapar, and Negapatam, were already extinct by the 19th century. Their speakers (mostly the people of mixed Portuguese-Indian ancestry, known locally as Topasses) switched to English after the British takeover.Most of the creoles of the coast of Malabar, namely those of Cananor, Tellicherry, Mahé, Cochin (modern Kerala), and Quilon) had become extinct by the 19th century. In Cananor and Tellicherry, some elderly people still spoke some creole in the 1980s. The only creole that is still spoken (by a few Christian families only) isVypin Indo-Portuguese: in the Vypin Island, near Kerala.Christians, even in Calcutta, used Portuguese until 1811. A Portuguese Creole was still spoken in the early 20th century. Portuguese creoles were spoken in Bengal, such as at Balasore, Pipli,Chandernagore, Chittagong, Midnapore and Hugli.Portuguese has contributed to many languages of the Americas, although its similarity with Spanish makes it difficult to separate the influence of the two languages. An Afro-Portuguese pidgin or creole is posited to be ancestral to both the Portuguese and Spanish creoles of the Caribbean, with characteristically Portuguese features such as ele being retained despite later Spanish influence.[1] Most surviving creoles contain also influences from Dutch, English, French, and various African languages. They are:Papiamento: spoken in Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao; Portuguese/Spanish (60%), Dutch (25%), African languages and Arawak (15%).Saramaccan: spoken in Suriname; English, Portuguese, African languages (20%).Although sometimes classified as a creole, the Cupópia language from the Quilombo do Cafundó, at Salto de Pirapora, São Paulo,[2] is better classified as a Portuguese variety since it is structurally similar to Portuguese, in spite of having a large number of Bantu words in its lexicon.Portuguese-based creoles existed in Brazil. There is a Portuguese dialect in Helvécia, South ofBahia that presents signs of an earlier decreolization. Ancient Portuguese creoles originating from Africa are still preserved in the ritual songs of the Afro-Brazilian animist religions (Candomblé)[citation needed].It has been conjectured that vernacular of Brazil (not the official and standard Brazilian Portuguese) resulted from decreolization of a creole based on Portuguese and native languages; but this is not a widely accepted view. Vernacular Brazilian Portuguese is continuous with European Portuguese, and in fact quite conservative in some aspects.[3] Academic specialists affirm the Brazilian linguistic phenomena are the "nativização", nativization/nativism of a most radically romanic form. The phenomena in Brazilian Portuguese are Classic Latin and Old Portuguese heritage. Not a creole form, but the radical romanic form.[4] Regardless of borrowings and changes, it must be kept in mind that Brazilian Portuguese is not a Portuguese creole, since both grammar and vocabulary remain real Portuguese.There are two French-based Caribbean creole languages spoken in Brazil, in the state of Amapá,Lanc-Patuá and Karipúna Creole, which were transplanted to the region in the 20th century. They are poorly known, but the Portuguese influence on them is small (chiefly in the vocabulary).There is no consensus regarding the position Saramaccan, with some scholars classifying it as an English Creole with Portuguese words, and others classifyng it as a Portuguese Creole with an English relexification.The oldest Portuguese-based creole are the so-called Crioulos of Upper Guinea, born around the Portuguese settlements along the northwest coast of Africa. Originally spoken on a wider area, they are presently reduced to the following branches:Guinea-Bissau Creole (Kriol): lingua franca of Guinea-Bissau, also spoken in Casamance,Senegal and in Gambia.Cape Verdean Creole (Kriolu, Kriol): a dialect continuum spoken on the islands of Cape Verde, with some decreolization.Another group is spoken in the Gulf of Guinea, in São Tomé and Príncipe and Equatorial Guinea:Angolar (Ngola, N'góla): in coastal areas of São Tomé Island.Annobonese (Fá d'Ambô): in Annobón Island.Forro: in São Tomé.Principense (Lunguyê) (almost extinct): in Príncipe Island.Many other Portuguese creoles probably existed in Africa, especially in the Congo region and former Portuguese feitorias in the Gulf of Guinea.Portuguese pidgins still exist in Angola and Mozambique, uncreolized. A Portuguese pidgin, known as Simple Portuguese, is still used as lingua franca between distinct Angolan tribes.Portuguese Creoles are the mother tongue of Cape Verde (it also has a largest number of standard Portuguese speakers) and Guinea-Bissau's population.Africa's Portuguese creoles: Cape Verdean creoles (1), Kriol of Guinea-Bissau and Senegal (2) and creoles of São Tomé and Príncipe and Equatorial Guinea (3).The Portuguese word for "creole" is crioulo, which derives from the verb criar ("to raise", "to bring up") and a suffix -oulo of debated origin. Originally the word (like its Spanish equivalent criollo) was used to distinguish the members of any ethnic group who were born and raised in the colonies from those who were born in their homeland. So in Africa it was often applied to locally born people of (wholly or partly) Portuguese descent, as opposed to those born in Portugal; whereas in Brazil it was also used to distinguish locally born black people of African descent from those who had been brought from Africa as slaves.In time, however, this generic sense was lost, and the word crioulo or its derivatives (like "Creole" and its equivalents in other languages) became the name of several specific communities and their languages, such as the Guinea-Bissauan people (and their language) and the Cape Verdeanpeople (and their language). In Brazil, on the other hand, crioulo became a term for "black".Portuguese overseas exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries led to the establishment of aPortuguese Empire with trading posts, forts and colonies in the Americas, Asia and Africa. Contact between the Portuguese language and native languages gave rise to many Portuguese-based pidgins, used as linguas francas throughout the Portuguese sphere of influence. In time, many of these pidgins were nativized becoming new stable creole languages.Portuguese creoles are creole languages which have Portuguese as superstrate languageA creole language is a stable, full-fledged language that originated from a pidgin.Creole languages subgroups may include:French-based creole languagesArabic-based creole languagesDutch-based creole languagesEnglish-based creole languagesGerman-based creole languagesMalay-based creole languagesNgbandi-based creole languagesPortuguese-based creole languagesSpanish-based creole languagesSpecific creole languages include:Antillean Creole (also called "Creole Antillais" in French) which is Créole Guadeloupeen or Martiniquais (Guadeloupean or Martiniquan Creole), French-based, spoken in the French West Indies only.Haitian Creole language, French-based, an official language of HaitiMauritian Creole, French-based, spoken in MauritiusLouisiana Creole French, spoken in LouisianaBelizean Kriol language, spoken in BelizeCape Verdean Creole, spoken on the islands of Cape VerdeJamaican Creole, English-based, spoken in JamaicaKrio Dayak language, spoken by Krio Dayak people in West Kalimantan, IndonesiaLiberian Kreyol language, spoken in LiberiaSeychellois Creole, French-based, spoken in the SeychellesGuinea-Bissau Creole, spoken in Guinea-BissauNegerhollands, a Dutch-based creole, once spoken in the U.S. Virgin IslandsPapiamento, spoken in the ABC islands in the southern CaribbeanBislama, an English-based creole, spoken in VanuatuLlanito, a Spanish- and English-based creole, spoken in GibraltarBajan or Barbadian Creole, English-based, spoken in BarbadosHawaiian Creole, or Pidgin, a mixture of Native Hawaiian and American English similar to Tok PisinTok Pisin, an official language of Papua New GuineaTorres Strait Creole or Brokan, spoken in far north-east Australia, Torres Strait, and south-west PapuaNagamese creole, based on Assamese, used in Nagaland, India.
Ashkenazi Jews and Sephardic Jews seperating from Egptian Islam since beginning of civilization fought over territorial encroachment.
Ashkenazi jews took over all slavery of Crole speaking countries, Europe, America, South America.
Sephardic jews with help from Ashkenszi jews gained Russia, Parts of Europe under Holy Roman Jeduit-Pope in Ashkenazi tertiyories but with Sephardic jew roots from Holy Roman Empire mixed with Ottoman Empire.
Spoken in Bacan Island and its surroundings, North Maluku.Manado Malay is another creole which is the lingua franca in Manado and Minahasa, North Sulawesi. It is based on Ternatean Malay and highly influenced by Ternatean, Dutch, Minahasa languages and some Portuguese words.Gorap is lexically 85% Malay, but has many Ternate words as well, and word order differs from both Austronesian and Halmahera languages. Children no longer acquire the language.This creole resembles Manado Malay, but with different accents and vocabulary. A large percentage of its vocabulary is borrowed from Ternatean, such as: ngana : you (sg) ngoni : you (pl) bifi : ant ciri : to fall Spoken in Ternate, Tidore and Halmahera islands, North Maluku for intergroup communications, and in the Sula Islands.Originally a contact language among tribes in Indonesian New Guinea (Papua and West Papua) for trading and daily communication, now a growing number of native speakers. Papuan and Irian declared Malay as their language since 1926, before the Sumpah Pemuda declaration. Nowadays, they tend to speak more formal Indonesian. This variant is also understood in Vanimo, Papua New Guinea near Indonesian border.A distinct variant of Moluccan Malay. Spoken in Banda Islands, Maluku and it has specific accents. Different from Ambonese Malay and for Ambonese, Bandanese Malay is widely perceived as sounding funny due to its unique features.This Malay creole has been apparent since the 17th century. It was first brought by traders from Western Indonesia, then developed when the Dutch Empire colonized the Molluccas (Maluku). This was the first example of the transliteration of Malay into Roman script, and used as a tool of the missionaries in Eastern Indonesia. Malay has been taught in schools and churches in Ambon, and because of this, has become a lingua franca in Ambon and its surroundings.Christian speakers use Ambonese Malay as their mother tongue, while Muslims speak it as second language as they have their own language. Muslims in Ambon island particularly live in several areas in Municipality of Ambon, dominant in Salahutu and Leihitu Peninsula. While in the Lease (pron : LAY-AH-SAY) islands, Christian Ambonese-speaking community is dominant in part of Haruku, Saparua and Nusa Laut islands. Ambonese Malay Creole has also become lingua franca in Buru, Seram, Geser-Gorom and South-West Molucca Islands, though with different accents.Ambonese Malay is based on Malay with a great influences from both European languages (Dutch and Portuguese) as well as the vocabularies or grammatical structures of indigenous languages. It is famous for its melodious accent. Muslims and Christian speakers tend to make different choices in vocabulary.Spoken in Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara, on the west end of Timor Island. It is based on archaic Malay which mixed mostly with Dutch, Portuguese and local languages. Similar to Ambonese Malay with several differences in vocabularies and accent. Its grammatical system resembles that of other East Indonesian Malay Creoles.Singapore, MalaysiaMalaysiaSabahMakassar, South SulawesiBaliBacan, North MalukuMorotai Island, central HalmaheraKupang, West TimorMoluccasBanda IslandsWest PapuaIrian Malay
1933- Dachau German Hitler Concentration Camp for political prisoners.
Five years later in 1938 is when jews were sent to concentration camp that disagreed with Zionist-Ashkenazi-Jews headquartered in Kobe,Jap since1860, Amsterdam, Scotland-Britain-France-USA feuding with Russian Jews(Sephardic Jews).
Zionist-Ashkenazi Jews further seperated Germany's sephardic jews from Russian Empire's Sephardic Jews.
Throughout history, it was Sephardic Jews of Islam-Egyptian-Roman Empire-Russian jews
VS Ashkenazi-Freemason-Zionist jews of Nord Gauls.
Bible and its stories are jew fairytale illustration; Holy Roman Empire Jesuits-Russia was that of Sephardic Jews-Islam & Ashkenazis slaving non-caucasians fabricated Ham-Jew slavery.
"Homosexuality of Jesuit-Sephardic-jews of Holy Roman Empire" vs "Homosexuality of Ashkenazi jews with mix of African-Spanish-Carribean slavement Creole".
Branches of jews seperating from collapse of Roman Empire to Holy Roman Empire stems from sephardic jews feuding with ashkenazi jews during Roman Empire.
Islam of Ottoman Empire dates to Egyptian roots where jews were slaved by Egyptians.
So comes the fabricated-brain washing geneology narration bible written by jews.
1. Ice age. Humans started as Eskimos and Inuits.
A. Jews fabricated story of adam and eve to place superiority
Of caucasian Ashkenazi over Inuit-Eskimos.
2. The meteors were depicted as Noah's Ark-genocide of all races giving supriotity to jews.
The bible of jews are Ashkenazis.
The bible of Holy Roman Empire-Rusdia-Islam are Sephardic jews.
A. Sephardic jews since fall of Roman Empire made up Russia-Inuit-Eskimos of Asia
B.Ashkenazi Jews-Scot British Viking Gaul French German -Scot Viking Normandy
British.
C. Islam were original Egyptians that jews came to influence.
- beginning of ice age; Serbian Inuits, Russian Alaska connected Canadian Eskimos,
Canadian Inuit Eskimos of Asia connected to Viking Greenland-Polar Arctic Native Americans of Caucasians, South America-Carribean Native Americans, North American Native Americans with Canadian Eskimo roots.
-seperation due to territorial greed further seperated natives.
-writing and Egyptians with worship of Shamanism
Started the jews conspiring against Egyptian Monopoly.
-Jews fabricated biblical stories to place jews above Egyptians.
-Islam comes from native Egyptians-Roman Empire-Ottoman Empire.
-Split among Jews after feud with Egyptians gave Ashkenazi vs Sephardic.
Ashkenazi of Gaul-Scandanavian Viking Caucasians used Ham jew excuse fabricated to slave African tribes-Spanish Carribeans as Egyptians slaved jews.
-Sephardic jews breaking from Islam Egyptians in turn took to Russian Empire where enslaving Siberian-Innuit-Canada Eskimos thru its Alaskan territory. NOTE Russian -Turk
Ottoman Empire were unable to conttol Khan and native Inuit/Eskimos until
Helped by Ashkenazi jews that started Opium and Silk trade.
-Askenazi and Sephardic Jews further seperated territories around the globe.
-Ashkenazis slaved Remaining Roman Empire's France,Italy, Spain, Britain, Scotland-Ireland,Normandy, Seitzerland.
-Separdic jews seperating from Islamic Egyptian Ottoman Empire made up RussiaGaul Germans until Ashkenazis chipped away Russian Empire; Germany by Rhine Gaul Ashkenazi Jews broke away from Russian-Soviet Sephardic jews.
-Islam of Roman Empire dissolved to make up Turkey-Middle East.
-Sephardic Jews of Russia became Holy Roman Empire ruled by Homosexual Jesuit Jews of Italy-French of Napolean jews. Russia is connected thru Italy-Greece-French sephardic jews thru homosexual pope of hokosexual jesuits of Holy Roman Empire.
-Ashkenazi Jews of Gaul-Viking-Nordics of German French Italians Scots
Control Europe by financially bribing Homosexual Jesuits of Sephardic Jew Holy Roman Catholics that birthed Creole slavery of Carribean Guateloupe and African tribes slaved br Ashkenazi jews of French speaking slaved Antillean Creole. English speaking Creole Ashkenazi slaves of Britain.
The western media shrugged with indifference toward seven to ten million dead in the Ukrainian man-made 'famine', while giving a public platform to every Jew wailing over his father imprisoned in Dachau. Stalin's gulags contained millions of victims in the 1930's; Hitler's camp system pre-war did not contain more than 20-30,000 total inmates - and, of that number, only 10%-15% were Jews. The remainder were political opponents of Hitler, such as members of the Catholic Center Party or the Social Democrats. Hitler was generally improving working conditions in Germany.; Stalin was sending Russia back to the stone age. Yet Hitler was the Devil of the western media; Stalin was their angel.Why did Hitler get crucified while Stalin got the bouquet of red roses? The answer is that Stalin killed on behalf of the Jews; Hitler killed while fighting against the Jews. Stalin was the Czar of Red Russia - but his commissars were two-thirds Jewish. Stalin got the free pass for his crimes the same way that the state of Israel gets the free pass for its crimes. If an Arab suicide bomber kills a dozen Jews, the media wail for weeks. If the Israeli's bulldoze families to death in the rubble of their homes, that is not newsworthy. Stalin enjoyed a sainted reputation until he turned against the Jews in the final years of his life. So long as he was appointing one Jew after another to high Soviet positions and blinking at the crimes, he was applauded. Stalin is now more useful as a whipping boy than as the favorite of the media he once was. He can take the blame for the crimes of the Jewish commissars who have disappeared down the memory hole of history. He can even be used to paint the Jews as victims of communism, rather than the originators of communism, because he liquidated a few of them late in life.Joseph Stalin now enjoys a bad reputation. But he is never as bad as Adolf Hitler and 'The Holocaust'. Thirty million dead Russians cannot compare with a mythical 'six million' dead Jews. Stalin was a much greater mass murderer than Adolf Hitler - but Hitler (supposedly) murdered the people who really count. And that is why we have one standard for the man who stood up to the Jews - and a different standard for the man who killed for the Jews so successfully for so many decades.___________________________________________________________________________ WINSTON CHURCHILL in July 1940 "When I look around to see how we can win the war I see that there is only one sure path. We have no Continental army which can defeat the German military power.. Should [Hitler].. not try invasion [of Britain].. there is one thing that will bring him back and bring him down, and that is an absolutely devastating, exterminating attack by very heavy bombers from this country upon the Nazi homeland. We must be able to overwhelm them by this means, without which I do not see a way through. We cannot accept any aim lower than air mastery. When can it be obtained?" [Extract from Winston S Churchill The Second World War (Volume 2 Their Finest Hour Appendix A), Memo from Prime Minister to Minister of Aircraft Production, 8.July 1940]. ADOLF HITLER in May 1940 Britain and France declared war on Germany, not the other way around. Hitler actually wanted peace with Britain, as the German generals admitted (Basil Liddell Hart, The Other Side of the Hill 1948, Pan Books 1983) with regard to the so-called Halt Order of 24 May 1940 at Dunkirk, where Hitler had the opportunity to capture the entire British Army, but chose not to. Liddell Hart, one of Britain's most respected military historians, quotes the German General von Blumentritt with regard to this Halt Order: "He (Hitler) then astonished us by speaking with admiration of the British Empire, of the necessity for its existence, and of the civilization that Britain had brought into the world. He remarked, with a shrug of the shoulders, that the creation of its Empire had been achieved by means that were often harsh, but 'where there is planing, there are shavings flying'. He compared the British Empire with the Catholic Church saying they were both essential elements of stability in the world. He said that all he wanted from Britain was that she should acknowledge Germany's position on the Continent. The return of Germany's colonies would be desirable but not essential, and he would even offer to support Britain with troops if she should be involved in difficulties anywhere.." (p 200). According to Liddell Hart, "At the time we believed that the repulse of the Luftwaffe in the 'Battle over Britain' had saved her. That is only part of the explanation, the last part of it. The original cause, which goes much deeper, is that Hitler did not want to conquer England. He took little interest in the invasion preparations, and for weeks did nothing to spur them on; then, after a brief impulse to invade, he veered around again and suspended the preparations. He was preparing, instead, to invade Russia" (p140).
Stalin's crimes were committed on behalf of the Jews; Hitler's crimes were committed against the Jews. When Hitler marched into Czechoslovakia and Poland, the west erupted in rage. When Stalin marched into Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Poland, the west looked the other way. It was the same after the war when Stalin took over Eastern Europe. Before the war, the same western media which screamed over Kristallnacht, viewed Stalin's purge trials as a legitimate response to an internal threat.
Stalin and Adolf Hitler both jews.
Stalin was Sephardic Jew.
Adolf Hitler had Ashkenazi mix jew dna.
Russian Empire had Egyptian-Roman Empire roots
Including German-Russians ruling Europe.
Genghis Khan has roots to Middle-East Islam
Turk-Iran-Egyptian roots through Crimeria Khan that was once Ottoman Empire.
T
Towards the end of the Ming Dynasty, the Great Wall helped defend the empire against theManchu invasions that began around 1600. Even after the loss of all of Liaodong, the Ming army under the command of Yuan Chonghuan held off the Manchus at the heavily fortifiedShanhaiguan pass, preventing the Manchus from entering the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, after Beijing had fallen to Li Zicheng's rebels. The gates at Shanhaiguan were opened by the commanding Ming general Wu Sangui on May 25 who formed an alliance with the Manchus, hoping to use the Manchus to expel the rebels from Beijing.[22] On 26 May 1644, Wu ordered his soldiers to wear a white cloth attached to their armor, to distinguish them from Li Zicheng's forces.[23] The Manchus quickly seized Beijing, and defeated both the rebel-founded Shun Dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, establishing the Qing Dynasty rule over all of China.[23]In 2009, an additional 290 km (180 mi) of previously undetected portions of the wall, built during the Ming Dynasty, were discovered. The newly discovered sections range from the Hushanmountains in the northern Liaoning province, to Jiayuguan in western Gansu province. The sections had been submerged over time by sandstorms which moved across the arid region.[During the 1440s–1460s, the Ming also built a so-called "Liaodong Wall". Similar in function to the Great Wall (whose extension, in a sense, it was), but more basic in construction, the Liaodong Wall enclosed the agricultural heartland of the Liaodong province, protecting it against potential incursions by Jurched-Mongol Oriyanghan from the northwest and theJianzhou Jurchens from the north. While stones and tiles were used in some parts of the Liaodong Wall, most of it was in fact simply an earth dike with moats on both sides.[21]The Great Wall concept was revived again during the Ming Dynasty in the 14th century,[17] and following the Ming army's defeat by the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu. The Ming had failed to gain a clear upper hand over the Manchurian and Mongolian tribes after successive battles, and the long-drawn conflict was taking a toll on the empire. The Ming adopted a new strategy to keep thenomadic tribes out by constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge instead of incorporating the bend of the Huang He.he Tang and SongDynasties did not build any walls in the region.[14] The Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties, who ruled Northern China throughout most of the 10th–13th centuries, had their original power bases north of the Great Wall proper. Accordingly, they would have no need throughout most of their history to build a wall along this line. The Liao carried out limited repair of the Great Wall in a few areas,[15] however the Jin did construct defensive walls in the 12th century, but those were located much to the north of the Great Wall as we know it, within today's Inner and Outer Mongolia.[14][16]Qin Shi Huang conquered all opposing states and unified China in 221 BC, establishing the Qin Dynasty. IThe Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC.[7] During this time and the subsequentWarring States period, the states of Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Yan and Zhongshan[8][9] all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own bordersGreat Wall of the Han DynastyGreat Wall of the Qin DynastyThe Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials, generally built along an east-to-west line across the historical northern borders of China in part to protect the Chinese Empire or its prototypical states against intrusions by various nomadic groups or military incursions by various warlike peoples or forces. Several walls were being built as early as the 7th century BC;[3] these, later joined together and made bigger and stronger, are now collectively referred to as the Great Wall.[4] Especially famous is the wall built between 220–206 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. Little of that wall remains. Since then, the Great Wall has on and off been rebuilt, maintained, and enhanced; the majority of the existing wall was reconstructed during the Ming Dynasty.萬里長城Literal meaningThe long wall of 10,000 Li (里)The Ming Empire took control of Liaoning in 1371, just three years after the expulsion of the Mongols from Beijing. Around 1442, a defense wall was constructed to defend the northwestern frontier of the province from a potential threat from the Jurched-Mongol Oriyanghan (who were Ming's tributaries). In 1467-1468, the wall was expanded to protect the region from the northeast as well, against attacks from Jianzhou Jurchens (who were later to become known as theManchu people). Although similar in purpose to the Great Wall of China, this "Liaodong Wall" was of a lower-cost design. While stones and tiles were used in some parts, most of the wall was in fact simply an earth dike with moats on both sides.[6]Liaoning is located in the southern part of China's Northeast. The governments headed by various people such as the Korean kingdoms as Gojoseon, Goguryeo, Balhae, the Chinese as theYan state, Han Dynasty, and the nomadic peoples as Donghu, Xianbei, Khitan and Jurchen ruled Liaoning.[5]辽宁省 (Liáoníng Shěng)When Abaoji conquered the Balhae state in 926, most of the population was relocated to the area that is now Liaoning, China. At least three groups remained in the former Balhae territory, one of which formed the state of Dingan. Despite launching two invasions, in 975 and 985, the Liao were unable to defeat the Dingan. Unable to eliminate the threat, and weary of Jurchen groups also inhabiting the region, the Liao established three forts with military colonies in the Yalu Rivervalley area.[38]
Khitan tribes at various times fell under the influence of Turkic tribes such as the Uighurs and Chinese dynasties such as the Sui and Tang. This influence would significantly shape Khitan language and culture.[8] For most of the century between 630 and 730, the Khitans were under the influence of the Tang Dynasty. The arrangement was largely the doing of the Khitan Dahe clan. The Tang emperor bestowed the Chinese surname Li on the Dahe and appointed their leader to a governorship that Twitchett and Tietze described as "an office specifically created for the indirect management of the Khitan tribes".[9] Towards the turn of the century, however, Tang control of the north began to slip as it focused attention on its other borders. In 696 the Dahe leader, Li Jinzhong, launched a rebellion and led Khitan forces into Hebei. Although the rebellion was defeated, it took over fifteen years before the Tang were able to reassert control over the Khitans, and that control would never be strong or long-lived. Re-disintegration of Khitan-Liao relations in the 730s saw the Yaolian clan replace the Dahe as the Khitan ruling clan, forcing Tang governorAn Lushan to launch two invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755. After being soundly defeated by the Khitans during the first invasion, An Lushan was successful in the second, but he then led a rebellion against the Tang that included Khitan troops in his army. The An Lushan Rebellion marked the beginning of the end of the Tang Dynasty.[10]Following the An Lushan Rebellion, the Khitans became vassals of the Uighurs, while simultaneously paying tributes to the Tang, a situation that lasted from 755 until the fall of the Uighurs in 840. From 840 until the rise of Aboji, the Khitans remained a tributary of the Tang Dynasty.[11]
Ambagyan and the rise of the Khitans
Main article: Emperor Taizu of LiaoAbaoji (Mongolian: Ambagyan)[12], who later became Emperor Taizu of Liao, was born in 872, the son of the chief of the Yila tribe. At that time, the Yila tribe was the largest and strongest of the eight affiliated Khitan tribes; however, the Great Khan, the overall leader of the Khitans, was drawn from the Yaolian lineage. In 901 Abaoji was elected to be the chief of the Yila tribe by its tribal council. By 903, Abaoji had been named the Yüyue, the overall military leader of the Khitans, subordinate only to the Great Khan. Four years later, in 907, Ambagyan became the Great Khan of the Khitans, ending nine generations of Yaolian rule.[13] Abaoji acquired the prestige needed to secure the position of Khitan Great Khan through a combination of effective diplomacy and a series of successful military campaigns, beginning in 901, against the Han Chinese forces to the south, the Xi and Shiwei to the west, and the Jurchens in the east.[13]The same year that Ambagyan became Great Khan, the Chinese warlord Zhu Wen, who in 904 had murdered the last legitimate emperor of the Tang Dynasty, declared the Tang over and named himself emperor of China. His dynasty dissolved quickly, ushering in the fifty-three-year period of disunity known as the Five Dynasties period. One of the five dynasties, the Later Jin Dynasty (936–947), was a client state of the Khitans.[14]For much of Chinese history, the position of Emperor was determined by primogeniture; the position would pass from father to first-born son upon the father's death. While Khitan succession was also kept within families, an emphasis was placed on selecting the most capable option, with all of a leader's brothers, nephews, and sons considered valid choices for succession. Khitan rulers were expected to hand over power to a paternal relative after serving a single three-year term.[15] Abaoji signaled his desire to become a permanent ruler in 907, securing his position by killing most of other Khitan chieftains.[16] Between 907 and 910 Abaoji's rule went unchallenged. It was only after 910, when Abaoji disregarded the Khitan tradition that another member of the family assume the position of Great Khan, that his rule came under direct challenge. In both 912 and 913 members of Abaoji's family, including most of his brothers, attempted armed insurrections. After the first insurrection was discovered and defeated, Abaoji pardoned the conspirators. After the second, only his brothers were pardoned, with the other conspirators suffering violent deaths. The brothers plotted additional rebellions in 917 and 918, both of which were easily crushed.[17]In 916, at what would have been the end of his third term as Khitan Grand Khan, Abaoji made a number of changes moving the Khitan state closer to the model of governance used by the Chinese dynasties. He assumed the title of Celestial Emperor and designated an era name, named his oldest son Yelü Bei as his successor, and commissioned the construction of a Confucian temple. Two years later he established a capital city, Shangjing (上京), which imitated the model of a Chinese capital city.[18]Before his death in 926, Abaoji greatly expanded the areas that the Khitans controlled.[19] At its height, the Liao Dynasty encompassed modern-day Mongolia, parts of Kazakhstan and theRussian Far East, and the Chinese provinces of Hebei, Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Liaoning, and Shanxi.[20]Samguk Sagi (1145), a history of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, mentions a Khitan raid taking place in 378.[6]The Liao Dynasty was destroyed by the Jurchen people of the Jin Dynasty in 1125, with the Jin capture of Liao emperor Tianzuo. However, remnants of its people, led by Yelü Dashi, established the Western Liao Dynasty, also known as the Kara-Khitan Khanate, which ruled over parts of Central Asia for almost a century before being conquered by the army of the Mongolian rulerGenghis Khan. Although cultural achievements associated with the Liao Dynasty are considerable, and a number of various statuary and other artifacts exist in museums and other collections, major questions remain over the exact nature and extent of the influence of the Liao Khitan culture upon subsequent developments, such as the musical and theatrical arts.Almost immediately after its founding, the Liao Dynasty began a process of territorial expansion, with its founder Abaoji leading a successful conquest of theBalhae. Later emperors would gain sixteen Chinese prefectures by fueling a proxy war that led to the collapse of the Tang Dynasty, and would make both the Goryeo and the Song Dynasty intotribute states following successful military campaigns into their territories. The word "Liao" means "distant" or "far" in Chinese language.
FatherYelü Saladi (耶律薩剌的), Khitan chieftain, posthumously honored Emperor DezuMotherYaonian (or Xiao) Yanmujin (遙輦巖母斤 or 蕭巖母斤), posthumously honored Empress XuanjianWifeEmpress Shulü Ping (879–953), initially posthumously honored Empress Zhenlie, later honored Empress Chunqin (changed 1052), mother of Princes Bei, Deguang, and LihuConcubineLady Xiao, mother of Prince YaliguoChildrenYelü Bei (耶律倍) (b. 900), King of Dongdan, name later changed to Dongdan Zanhua (東丹慕華) then to Li Zanhua (李贊華) (killed by Li Congke 937), posthumously initially honored King Wenwuyuan, then as Emperor Rangguo, then as Emperor Wenxian, then as Emperor Wenxian Qinyi with the temple name YizongYelü Deguang (耶律德光), later Emperor Taizong of LiaoYelü Lihu (耶律李胡), posthumously honored Emperor Qinshun, then as Emperor Zhangsu, then as Emperor HejingYelü Yali (耶律牙里果)Yelü Zhigu (耶律質古), wife of Xiao Han (蕭翰), also known as Xiao Shilu (蕭室魯)Though Prince Bei was designated heir apparent in 916, the empress dowager Yingtian did not consider him to be worthy and managed to have her second son Deguang succeed to the throne. Deguang became known to history as Emperor Taizong and he reigned from 926 to 947.[15]The souring of relations occurred probably due to the aggressiveness of Abaoji as in 922 and 923 he had pressed deep into Hebei, looting and taking prisoners all the way. This was in essence Later Tang territory.[13]Two more important innovations were introduced in 916. He adopted Chinese court formalities in which he declared himself Celestial Emperor in the Chinese-style and adopted a reign name, also in the Chinese manner of ruling. The second was to name his son, Prince Bei, heir apparent, also a first in Khitan society and something that directly contrasted with Khitan notions of rule by merit. This second innovation did not take hold so easily as few of his successors experienced simple successions.[9][10]He also organized his followers into warrior units known as ordos, and then by joining 12 ordos, he would form an administrative district.[1]In 918, Ambagyan had a new walled city built. A Chinese city (漢城) was built adjacent to this city in which artisan's shops, commercial shops, and warehouses were constructed. Later, five capital cities would be built, including a Supreme Capital (上京), that served as the base of Khitan administration.[9]Abaoji ordered the development of a Khitan large script in 920. This script looks superficially like Chinese writing, however, it bears little resemblance to Chinese writing, and the two were mutually unintelligible. Five years later, the arrival of a Uyghur delegation led Abaoji to order his younger brother Yelü Diela to develop a new script on more syllabic principles. Unlike the Japanese and Koreans, the Khitan managed to adopt the cultural and administrative tool of writing without the baggage of Chinese culture and grammar that came with the wholesale adoption of Chinese characters.[11]When he died of typhoid fever at the age of 54, he had captured the entire Bohai state,[12] keeping their ruling family as nobility ruling his new fiefdom. His eastern boundaries were the Yalu Riverand the Ussuri River. His westward progression had gone far onto the Mongolian Plateau. He had not acted on his desires to move south.[9]Ambagyan's success was in his ability to introduce innovations to Khitan society. Arguably the most important was the introduction of a dual administrative system in which nomadic steppe peoples would be governed by steppe traditions and sedentary populations in conquered Balhaeand north China would be governed by a civil bureaucracy drawn largely on Chinese methods. While this did not receive universal support from tribal leaders due to the erosion of their own powers, this became the model that later steppe peoples would use to govern their diverse empires.[8]Abaoji became chieftain of the Yila tribe in 901 and in 903, was named the Yuyue, Commander of all Khitan military forces. This had the effect of making him second only to the great khan in the hierarchy of the Khitan nation. He started making a name for himself in 905, when he led 70,000 cavalry into Shanxi to crate a brotherhood with Li Keyong. Not only did he offer "brotherood" but he pleged support against Zhu Wen.[5] This showed that he was willing to be more aggressive than the Great Khan. In 907, he appeared at the triennial council and demanded to be named the khaghan, the Khan of khans. His successes against the Chinese in the north, who he had been raiding since 901, led to receiving the support of seven tribal chiefs and even the acquiescence of the last Yaolian Great Khan himself.[6]The Yaolian clan had dominated the leadership of the Khitan (Chinese: Qidan)[3] tribes since the 750s. They maintained good relations with the Tang Dynasty of China to the south. However, by the end of the ninth century, leaders of the powerful Yila Tribe were expressing dissatisfaction with the Yaolian khans. Abaoji's father had been the elected chieftain of the Yila Tribe. As surnames were considered a marker of Chinese culture, they were not used by the Khitan people outside of the Yaolian imperial clan.The Khitan resided on the east slope of the Greater Khingan Mountains (Xing'an). West of the mountains were other nomadic pastoral tribes such as the Shiwei, and theXi, along with the Turkic Uighur tribe. These other tribes had inter-married with the Khitan to provide them with some of their fire. Further west were the Tartars, a warlike tribe on the steppes of Mongolia. East and northeast lay the Jurchen tribe all the way to the Amur river. They were a peaceful people that resided in small villages and subsisted by hunting and fishing. Across theLiao River to the east and southeast until one reached the Yalu River lay the Bohai people, the majority of which were a settled agricultural society. The Bohai had a population of Koreans and Chinese that they had subjugated.[4]Later generations of Chinese historians record a variety of legends that surrounded the birth of Abaoji. According to the legends, his mother dreamed that the sun fell from the sky and into her bosom, from which pregnancy followed. When she gave birth, the room is said to have become filled with a mysterious light and extraordinary fragrance. As a newborn, his body was that of a three-year-old, and the legends go on to say that he was walking at the age of three months. He is even recorded as being able to see events before they passed.[3]The Emperor Taizu of Liao (Chinese: 遼太祖; pinyin: Liáo Tàizŭ), Liao T'ai Tsu,[1] (Mongolian: Ambagyan) was the first emperor of the Liao Dynasty (907–926). His given name was Abaoji (阿保機), and he also took the Chinese name Yi (億). Some sources[which?] also suggest that the surname Yelü (耶律) was adopted during his lifetime, though there is no unanimity on this point.He was born on 872 in China and had a turbulent childhood. His grandfather was killed in a conflict between tribes, and his father and uncles fled. Yelü Abaoji was hidden by his grandmother for his safety. He was enthroned as emperor on February 29, 907 and died on September 6, 926.[2]Yelü Bei was twenty-six years old at the time of his father's death. A polymath, Bei exemplified many of the values of the Chinese aristocracy; he was an expert in music, medicine, fortune-telling, painting, and writing (in both Chinese and Khitan).[24] He was also an accomplished warrior, leading troops into battle during his father's conquest of Balhae. After the campaign ended in victory for the Liao in 926, Emperor Taizu gave Bei command of the conquered territory––which became known as the principality of Dongdan––as well as the title of Prince of Dongdan.[25]Khitans were Mongolic in origin, and in the late 19th century Western scholars made the claim that the Khitans were Tungusic in origin -- modern linguistic analysis has discredited this claim.[7]By the time the Book of Wei was written in 554, the Khitans had formed a state in what is now China's Jilin and Liaoning Provinces.[5] The Khitans suffered a series of military defeats to other nomadic groups in the region, as well as to the Chinese Northern Qi and Sui Dynasties. Khitan tribes at various times fell under the influence of Turkic tribes such as the Uighurs and Chinese dynasties such as the Sui and Tang. This influence would significantly shape Khitan language and culture.[8] For most of the century between 630 and 730, the Khitans were under the influence of the Tang Dynasty. The arrangement was largely the doing of the Khitan Dahe clan. The Tang emperor bestowed the Chinese surname Li on the Dahe and appointed their leader to a governorship that Twitchett and Tietze described as "an office specifically created for the indirect management of the Khitan tribes".[9] Towards the turn of the century, however, Tang control of the north began to slip as it focused attention on its other borders. In 696 the Dahe leader, Li Jinzhong, launched a rebellion and led Khitan forces into Hebei. Although the rebellion was defeated, it took over fifteen years before the Tang were able to reassert control over the Khitans, and that control would never be strong or long-lived. Re-disintegration of Khitan-Liao relations in the 730s saw the Yaolian clan replace the Dahe as the Khitan ruling clan, forcing Tang governorAn Lushan to launch two invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755. After being soundly defeated by the Khitans during the first invasion, An Lushan was successful in the second, but he then led a rebellion against the Tang that included Khitan troops in his army. The An Lushan Rebellion marked the beginning of the end of the Tang Dynasty.[10]Following the An Lushan Rebellion, the Khitans became vassals of the Uighurs, while simultaneously paying tributes to the Tang, a situation that lasted from 755 until the fall of the Uighurs in 840. From 840 until the rise of Aboji, the Khitans remained a tributary of the Tang Dynasty.[11]
Ambagyan and the rise of the Khitans
Main article: Emperor Taizu of LiaoAbaoji (Mongolian: Ambagyan)[12], who later became Emperor Taizu of Liao, was born in 872, the son of the chief of the Yila tribe. At that time, the Yila tribe was the largest and strongest of the eight affiliated Khitan tribes; however, the Great Khan, the overall leader of the Khitans, was drawn from the Yaolian lineage. In 901 Abaoji was elected to be the chief of the Yila tribe by its tribal council. By 903, Abaoji had been named the Yüyue, the overall military leader of the Khitans, subordinate only to the Great Khan. Four years later, in 907, Ambagyan became the Great Khan of the Khitans, ending nine generations of Yaolian rule.[13] Abaoji acquired the prestige needed to secure the position of Khitan Great Khan through a combination of effective diplomacy and a series of successful military campaigns, beginning in 901, against the Han Chinese forces to the south, the Xi and Shiwei to the west, and the Jurchens in the east.[13]The same year that Ambagyan became Great Khan, the Chinese warlord Zhu Wen, who in 904 had murdered the last legitimate emperor of the Tang Dynasty, declared the Tang over and named himself emperor of China. His dynasty dissolved quickly, ushering in the fifty-three-year period of disunity known as the Five Dynasties period. One of the five dynasties, the Later Jin Dynasty (936–947), was a client state of the Khitans.[14]For much of Chinese history, the position of Emperor was determined by primogeniture; the position would pass from father to first-born son upon the father's death. While Khitan succession was also kept within families, an emphasis was placed on selecting the most capable option, with all of a leader's brothers, nephews, and sons considered valid choices for succession. Khitan rulers were expected to hand over power to a paternal relative after serving a single three-year term.[15] Abaoji signaled his desire to become a permanent ruler in 907, securing his position by killing most of other Khitan chieftains.[16] Between 907 and 910 Abaoji's rule went unchallenged. It was only after 910, when Abaoji disregarded the Khitan tradition that another member of the family assume the position of Great Khan, that his rule came under direct challenge. In both 912 and 913 members of Abaoji's family, including most of his brothers, attempted armed insurrections. After the first insurrection was discovered and defeated, Abaoji pardoned the conspirators. After the second, only his brothers were pardoned, with the other conspirators suffering violent deaths. The brothers plotted additional rebellions in 917 and 918, both of which were easily crushed.[17]In 916, at what would have been the end of his third term as Khitan Grand Khan, Abaoji made a number of changes moving the Khitan state closer to the model of governance used by the Chinese dynasties. He assumed the title of Celestial Emperor and designated an era name, named his oldest son Yelü Bei as his successor, and commissioned the construction of a Confucian temple. Two years later he established a capital city, Shangjing (上京), which imitated the model of a Chinese capital city.[18]Before his death in 926, Abaoji greatly expanded the areas that the Khitans controlled.[19] At its height, the Liao Dynasty encompassed modern-day Mongolia, parts of Kazakhstan and theRussian Far East, and the Chinese provinces of Hebei, Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Liaoning, and Shanxi.[20]
Succession issues and the occupation of Kaifeng
See also: List of emperors of the Liao DynastyIn 916 Emperor Taizu (Abaoji) officially designated his eldest son, Yelü Bei, as his successor.[21]Succession by primogeniture was a long-held standard in Chinese culture but was not accepted among the Khitans, creating a friction between Taizu's desires and the beliefs of the Khitan elites, including Taizu's wife, Empress Shulü Ping. Taizu, sensing the possibility that the succession process would run into difficulty, forced the Khitan leadership to swear allegiance to Yelü Bei after he was installed as heir apparent. To the Khitans, this was considered a radical move.[22]This friction between primogeniture and succession by the strongest candidate would lead to repeated succession crises, the first of which occurred after Taizu's sudden and unexpected death in 926.[23]
Controversy rests over the ethnic makeup of the people of Balhae. That Balhae was founded by a former general from Goguryeo is undisputed, but there is some dispute over his ethnicity, due to ambiguous wording in historical sources. No written records from Balhae itself survive.Korean scholars have generally regarded Balhae as an extension of the Korean Goguryeo kingdom (37 B.C. - 668 A.D.) ever since the publication of Jewang ungi.[16] The 18th century, during the Joseon Dynasty, was a period in which Korean scholars began a renewed interest in Balhae. The Qing and Joseon dynasties had negotiated and demarcated the Sino-Korean border along the Yalu and Tumen rivers in 1712, and Jang Ji-yeon (1762–1836), journalist, writer of nationalist tracts, and organizer of nationalist societies, published numerous articles arguing that had the Joseon officials considered Balhae part of their territory, they would not be as eager to "give up" lands north of the rivers. Yu Deuk-gong in his 18th-century work Balhaego (An investigation of Balhae) argued that Balhae should be included as part of Korean history, and that doing so would justify territorial claims on Manchuria. Korean historian Sin Chae-ho, writing about Jiandao in the early 20th century, bemoaned that for centuries, Korean people in their “hearts and eyes considered only the land south of the Yalu River as their home” and that “half of our ancestor Dangun's ancient lands have been lost for over nine hundred years.” Sin also criticized Kim Busik, author of the Samguk Sagi, for excluding Balhae from his historical work and claiming that Silla had achieved unification of Korea.[17] Inspired by ideas of Social Darwinism, Sin wrote:"How intimate is the connection between Korea and Manchuria? When the Korean race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is strong and prosperous. When another race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is inferior and recedes. Moreover, when in the possession of another race, if that race is the northern race, then Korea enters that northern race's sphere of power. If an eastern race obtains Manchuria, then Korea enters that race's sphere of power. Alas! This is an iron rule that has not changed for four thousand years."[18]Neither Silla nor the later Goryeo wrote an official history for Balhae, and some modern scholars argue that had they done so, Koreans might have had a stronger claim to Balhae's history and territory.[19]In modern North and South Korea, Balhae is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "North South States Period" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think the ethnicity ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were mixed, including Mohe, North Korean historians think Balhae ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. Koreans believe the founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo stock. The Book of Tangsays that Dae Joyeong belonged to a branch of the Goguryeo ruling house (고려별종, 高麗別種),[20] and the New Book of Tang states that he is "from the Sumo Mohe region of the former realm of Goguryeo."In the West, Balhae is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean.[dubious ][21][22][23] An alternate Romanization from Korean, as "Parhae", and Romanization from Chinese, as "Bohai", are also common in English.[13][24][25][26] It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryeo. Korean scholars believe Balhae founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo ethnicity, while others believe he was an ethnic Mohe from Goguryeo.[27][28][29][30]Balhae was made up of former Goguryeo remnant peoples and of several Tungusic peoplespresent in Manchuria, of which the native Mohe made up partly. The Mohe was forced into inferior working class status into serving the Goguryeo ruling class.[10] As such, they made the bulk of the labor class, as well as a majority of the population. Nevertheless, there were instances of Mohe moving upward into the Balhae elite, however few, such as the followers of Geolsa Biu, who supported the estalblishment of Balhae. They were limited to the title of "suryong", or "chief", and played a part in the ruling elite. Although rare, some members of Balhae embassies held Mohe surnames.Because all written records from Balhae itself have been lost, all information concerning the kingdom must be gained from archaeological excavation and contemporary Chinese accounts. After its founding, Balhae actively imported aspects of the culture and political system of Tang Dynasty China. Archaeologists studying the layout of Balhae's cities have conclude that Balhae cities shared features common with cities in Goguryeo, indicating that Balhae retained cultural similarities with Tang dynasty after its founding.[13] According to Chinese accounts, Balhae had five capitals, fifteen provinces, and sixty-three counties.[14]It is noted that Balhae was a culturally advanced society, as an official from China described it as the "flourishing land of the East." The government operated three chancelleries and six ministries. It is obvious that Balhae's structure was modelled after the Chinese system, however it did not entirely conform to that of the Tang. The "taenaesang" or the "great minister of the court" was superior to the other two chancelleries (the left and the right) and its system of five capitals originates from Goguryeo's administrative structure. Balhae, like Silla, sent many students to Tang to study, and many went on to take and pass the Chinese civil service examinations.[15] As consequence, the Balhae capital of Sanggyong was organized in the way of Tang's capital of Chang'an. Residential sectors were laid out on either side of the palace surrounded by a rectangular wall.The principal roots of Balhae culture was that of Goguryeo origins. An Ondol installation was uncovered in the inner citidel of the Balhae palace and many others adjacent to it. Furthermore, Buddhist statuaries and motifs were found in Balhae temples that reflect that of distinctive Goguryeo art. An important source of cultural information on Balhae was discovered at the end of the 20th century at the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain, especially the Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo.Traditionally, historians believed that ethnic conflicts between the ruling Koreans and underclass Mohe weakened the state.[10] Recent study suggests that the downfall of Balhae is largely due to the catastrophic eruption in the 10th century of Baekdu Mountain located at the center of Balhae territory. Baekdu mountain still has one of the biggest volcanic calderas in the world, Heaven Lake. Ashes of this eruption can still be found in a large area, even in a sedimentary layer in northern Japan. This massive explosion created tremendous amounts of volcanic ash, damaging agriculture and even societal integrity. The Khitans took advantage of this natural disaster.Eventually, Balhae would succumb to the Khitans, an emerging power in the Liaoxi area (east of the current Beijing area). After destroying Balhae in 926, the Khitan established the puppetDongdan Kingdom, which was soon annexed by Liao in 936. Some Balhae aristocrats were moved to Liaoyang but Balhae's eastern territory remained politically independent. Some Balhae people including aristocrats (est. 1 million), led by the last Crown Prince Dae Gwang-hyeon, fled southward to Goryeo, the new self-proclaimed successor of Goguryeo (934). Many descendants of the Balhae royal family in Goryeo changed their family name to Tae (태, 太) while Crown Prince Dae Gwang-hyeon was given the family name Wang (왕, 王), the royal family name of the Goryeo dynasty. Balhae was the last state in Korean history to hold any significant territory in Manchuria, although later Korean dynasties would continue to regard themselves as successors of Goguryeo and Balhae. Moreover that was the beginning of the northern expansion of later Korean dynasties.The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the Jurchen people, who founded the Jin Dynasty. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people as well as the Khitans. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchen people from the seven Wuji (勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family". The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin were mothered by Balhae consorts. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae from other ethnic groups such asGoryeo, Khitan and Jurchen.
Aftermath
After the fall of Balhae and its last king in 926, it was renamed Dongdan by its new Khitanrulers,[11] who had control over most of Balhae's old territories. However, starting from 927, many rebellions were triggered throughout the domains. These rebellions were eventually turned into several Balhae revivals. Out of these, only three succeeded and established kingdoms: Later Balhae, Jeong-an kingdom, Heung-yo kingdom and Daewon kingdom. These three kingdoms were able to temporarily chase the Khitan and their Dongdan Kingdom out into the Liaodong peninsula,[citation needed] but they were all eventually devastated by the Liao Empire.In 1034, Dae Gwang-hyeon, the last Crown Prince of Balhae, revolted against the Khitans. After being defeated, he fled to Goryeo, where he was granted protection and the imperial surname. This resulted in the Liao breaking off diplomatic relations with Goryeo, but there was no threat of invasion.[12]The earliest extant recorded mention of Balhae come from the Old Book of Tang, which was compiled between 941 to 945. Southern Manchuria and northern Korea were previously the territory of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo fell to the allied forces ofSilla and the Tang Dynasty in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River and became Unified Silla.In the confusion of uprising by the Khitan against the Tang, Dae Jung-sang, former Goguryeo[1]official,[2] who was a leader of remnants people of Goguryeo, allied with Geolsa Biu, a leader of Mohe and rose against the Tang in 698. After Dae Jung-sang’s death, his son Dae Jo-yeong, former Goguryeo general[3][4] succeeded his father. Geolsa Biu died in battle against the Tang army led by the general Li Kaigu. Dae jo Yeong managed to escape outside of the Tang controlled territory with the remaining Goguryeo and Mohe soldiers. And he successfully defeated the chasing army sent by Wu Zetian at the Battle of Cheonmun-ryeong. which enabled him to establish the state of Balhae in the former region of Yilou.[5]
Expansion and foreign relations
The second King Mu (r. 719-737), who felt encircled by Tang, Silla and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang with his navy in 732 and killed a Tang prefect based on theShandong Peninsula.[6] In the same time, the king led troops taking land routes to Madushan (馬都山) in the vincity of Shanhaiguan (about 300 kilometres east of current Beijing) and occupied towns nearby.[7] He also sent a mission to Japan in 728 to threaten Silla from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Balhae dispatched envoys to Japan 34 times, while Japan sent envoys to Balhae 13 times.[8] Later, a compromise was forged between Tang and Balhae, which led Tang diplomatically recognize Mun of Balhae, who succeeded to his father's throne, as King of Balhae.The third Emperor Mun (r. 737-793) expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. During his reign, a trade route with Silla, called "Sillado" (신라도, 新羅道), was established. Emperor Mun moved the capital of Balhae several times. He also established Sanggyeong, the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today'sHeilongjiang province around 755; stabilizing and strengthening central rule over various ethnic tribes in his realm, which was expanded temporarily. He also authorized the creation of theJujagam (胄子監), the national academy, based on the national academy of Tang. Although China recognized him as a king, Balhae itself referred to him as the son of heaven and an emperor.[9]The tenth King Seon reign (r. 818-830), Balhae controlled northern Korea, Northeastern Manchuria and now Primorsky Krai of Russia. King Seon led campaigns that resulted in the absorbing of many northern Mohe tribes and southwest Little Goguryeo kingdom, which was located in the Liaodong Peninsula, was absorbed into Balhae. Its strength was such that Silla was forced to build a northern wall in 721 as well as maintain active defences along the common border.Balhae (698–926) (Hangul: 발해, Korean pronunciation: [paɾɦɛ], Bohai [渤海] in Chinese, Бохай orПархэ in Russian) was a mixed ethnic Korean and Mohe kingdom established in northern Korea and Manchuria after the fall of Goguryeo. It existed during the North South States Period of Korea along with Unified Silla. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-yeong, a man from Goguryeo whose father was Dae Jung-sang, established Jin (振, Zhen inChinese), later called Balhae. It was a successor state to Goguryeo.Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria and Primorsky Krai, and the northern part of theKorean peninsula. It was defeated by the Khitans in 926, and most of its northern territories were absorbed into the Liao Dynasty while the southern parts were absorbed into Goryeo.Monarchs of KoreaBalhaeGo 698-719Mu 719–737Mun 737–793Dae Won-ui 793Seong 793-794Gang 794–809Jeong 809-812Hui 812–817Gan 817–818Seon 818–830Dae Ijin 831–857Dae Geonhwang 857–871Dae Hyeonseok 871–894Dae Wihae 894–906Dae Inseon 906–926Jin, then BalhaeMcCune–ReischauerChin, then Parhae진, then 발해Hanja振, then 渤海The Heishui Mohe or Heuksu Malgal also called Black-River Mohe (黑水靺鞨; Hangul: 흑수말갈;pinyin: Hēishuǐ Mòhé; Jurchen/manchu: sahaliyan i aiman 薩哈廉部), were the most feared among the Mohe tribes. They lived in Outer Manchuria, along the Hei Shui ("black river" 黑水), within today's Khabarovsk Krai, Jewish Autonomous Oblast and Amur Oblast of Russia and the northern part of China's Heilongjiang Province. The southern Heishui Mohe were submitted by King Seon of Balhae who administrated their territory. But most of them remained independent.When the Liao (Khitan) Empire conquered Balhae in 926, the Heishui Mohe tribes that became incorporated into the Liao were called Shu Jurchen (熟女眞; Hangul: 숙여진) literally, Familiar orTamed Jurchens, who were the ancestor of the "Cultured Manchu": the Jianzhou Jurchens and the Haixi Jurchens.[1] The remaining Heishui Mohe tribes, who were not incorporated into the Liao, were called Sheng Jurchens (生女眞; Hangul: 생여진) literally, Unfamiliar or Wild Jurchens, who were the ancestors of the "Barbarian Manchu": the Yeren Jurchens (野人女眞).
The Heishui Mohe or Heuksu Malgal also called Black-River Mohe (黑水靺鞨; Hangul: 흑수말갈;pinyin: Hēishuǐ Mòhé; Jurchen/manchu: sahaliyan i aiman 薩哈廉部), were the most feared among the Mohe tribes. They lived in Outer Manchuria, along the Hei Shui ("black river" 黑水), within today's Khabarovsk Krai, Jewish Autonomous Oblast and Amur Oblast of Russia and the northern part of China's Heilongjiang Province. The southern Heishui Mohe were submitted by King Seon of Balhae who administrated their territory. But most of them remained independent.When the Liao (Khitan) Empire conquered Balhae in 926, the Heishui Mohe tribes that became incorporated into the Liao were called Shu Jurchen (熟女眞; Hangul: 숙여진) literally, Familiar orTamed Jurchens, who were the ancestor of the "Cultured Manchu": the Jianzhou Jurchens and the Haixi Jurchens.[1] The remaining Heishui Mohe tribes, who were not incorporated into the Liao, were called Sheng Jurchens (生女眞; Hangul: 생여진) literally, Unfamiliar or Wild Jurchens, who were the ancestors of the "Barbarian Manchu": the Yeren Jurchens (野人女眞).
Mohe in Heilongjiang Province, located at the northern extremity of China, bordering Russia, is the prefecture which has the highest latitude in China. Mohe is nicknamed "China's Arctic Town", and it is the only place in China where people are able to enjoy the atmospheric phenomena of the aurora borealis and the midnight sun. The best location for tourists to see these marvelous spectacles is in Arctic Village.Mohe Prefecture is located to the north of the Greater Hinggan Mountains and on the south bank of the Upper Heilong Jiang ('Black Dragon River', also known as the Amur). Being surrounded by splendid mountains and rivers, Mohe is famous for its picturesque scenery.The Heilong Jiang, which gives its name to China's most northerly province, is the great boundary river between China and Russia. It is the 11th longest river in the world and the third longest in China (its source is in Mongolia and mouth in Russia). The river is first called the Amur in Mohe in Mohe (upstream it is known as the Argun), and its water is clear and fast-flowing. Along its banks, the scenery is charming and wild. You can see a large stone tablet there, on which there are four Chinese characters which mean 'the northern end of China'. The ancient forest around Mohe is dense with trees. This is the place where tourists like to make their camping expeditions.Mohe is famous for its historical relics from the time of the Qing Dynasty (1368–1911) and the period of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression (1937–1945).Mohe is also famous for its abundant natural resources. Mohe has more than 100 years of history in gold mining. The "Golden Path" and "Rouge River" are famous gold mining areas.Mohe is home to many rare animals like sika deer, wild boars, brown bears, snow hares, pheasants, sables, roe deer, reindeer, red deer and others. Mohe is a great place for hunting and fishing. The cold water fish in Heilong River are highly commended by international tourists. Mohe also has plants used for brewing wines and other drinks, and there are more than three hundred kinds of valuable herb medicines there, which contribute a lot to Chinese medicine.
Korean vodka and stories of bear eating garlic to take human form generates from Korean ancestors of Siberia!
The ethnonym of the Mohe bears a notable resemblance to that of the later historically attested*Motgit (in Middle Chinese. Chinese characters: 勿吉, pinyin: Mòjí, Korean: 물길 [Mulgil],Japanese: もつきつ [Motsukitsu]), as well as to that of the medieval Merkits, who opposed the rise of the Mongols led by Genghis Khan.One of the tribes of the Mohe, the Heishui Mohe, eventually became the ancestors of theJurchens, from whom the Manchu originated.[2]
말갈Hanja靺鞨TranscriptionsRevised RomanizationMalgalMcCune–ReischauerMalgalThe Mohe (or Malgal, Mogher) were a Tungusic people in ancient Manchuria. They are sometimes considered the ancestors of the Jurchens, modern-day Manchus and other Tungusic peoples. According to some records, they originally dwelt near the Liao River and later migrated southward. They were involved in the ancient history of Korea: the records of the southern Korean Kingdoms of Baekje and Silla during the 1st century and 2nd century AD include numerous battles against the Mohe. Later, they became subject to the northern Korean kingdom of Goguryeo and its successor state, Balhae.The Book of Sui records that Guanqiu Jian led a punitive expedition to Goguryeo, leading to the Goguryeo–Wei wars. He defeated the Goguryeo army led by King Dongcheon near the Tongjia River and then occupied the capital Hwando. During the follow-up campaign in the next year, he occupied the capital again and forced Dongcheon to flee to the southeast. A subsection of the army reached the eastern coast of the peninsula and another reached northern Manchuria, but soon retreated.[citation needed]The Mohe were divided into various tribes; among these were the Sumo Mohe, which were eventually conquered by the Goguryeo, and some other Mohe tribes, which were conquered by the Sui Dynasty of China. Many Mohe moved back toward their northern homeland in this period. The "Mohe" section of the "Beidi Zhuan" (北狄傳, Communications of the Northern "Di" Barbarians) of the "Jiu Tang Shu" (舊唐書, Old Book of Tang) states: "Their country is all (or "roughly") composed of some tens of 'bu' (roughly "tribes," but also just generally meaning "divisions"), each having a chief, some of whom are attached to the Goguryeo, and some of whom serve as common people (i.e., vassals) to the Tujue."The Mohe also participated in the kingdom of Balhae, 698-926. The founder of Balhae, Dae Jo-yeong was possibly a former Goguryeo general of Sumo Mohe stock, although the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk Yusa) written by Koreans several hundred years later states that he was of Goguryeo stock.[1] After the fall of Balhae, few historical traces of the Mohe can be found, though they are considered to be the main ethnic group that became the Jurchen.The name of the Mohe also appears as "Maka" in "Shin-Maka" (Japanese 新靺鞨, しんまか) or "New Mohe," the name of a dance and the musical piece that accompanies it, which was introduced to the Japanese court during the Nara Period or around the beginning of the Heian Period from the Balhae Kingdom.$
Northern TungusicEven (Lamut) of eastern SiberiaEvenkiEvenki (obsolete: Tungus), spoken by Evenks in central Siberia and northeastern ChinaOroqenSolonNegidal ?Kili (traditionally considered Nanai)Udege (strongly influenced by Southern Tungusic)OrochUdegeSouthern TungusicManchuJurchen–Manchu of Manchuria, the language of the Jurchen/Manchus, who founded the Jinand Qing dynasties of China.Xibe: spoken in Xinjiang autonomous region by descendants of a Manchurian tribe dispatched by the Qing Dynasty to Xinjiang as a military garrison.NanaiNanai (Gold, Goldi, Hezhen)AkaniBirarSamagirOrok (Uilta)UlchJurchen–Manchu (Jurchen and Manchu are simply different stages of the same language; in fact, the ethnonym "Manchu" did not come about until 1636 when Emperor Hong Taiji decreed that the term would replace "Jurchen") is the only Tungusic language with a literary form (inJurchen script and later the Manchu alphabet) which dates back to at least the mid- to late-12th century; as such it is a very important language for the reconstruction of Proto-Tungusic.The earliest[citation needed] and one of the most important extant texts in Jurchen is the inscription on the back of "the Jin Victory Memorial Stele" (Da Jin deshengtuo songbei), which was erected in 1185, during the Dading period (1161–1189). It is apparently an abbreviated translation of the Chinese text on the front of the stele.[1]Other ancient Tungusic languages include that of the Mohe.
The Tungusic languages /tʊŋˈɡuːsɨk/ (also known as Manchu-Tungus, Tungus) form a language family spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria by Tungusic peoples. Many Tungusic languages are endangered, and the long-term future of the family is uncertain. Traditionally, linguists considered Tungusic to be part of the Altaic language family along with the Turkic and Mongoliclanguage families; more recent proposals are that it belongs to Macro-Altaic, the latter including Japanese and Korean as well, or, on the other hand, that Altaic is not a genetic group, but aSprachbund.
Tungusic languages
TungusicGeographicdistribution:Siberia, ManchuriaLinguistic classification:possibly Altaic (controversial)TungusicSubdivisions:NorthernSouthernEthnologue code:17-844ISO 639-5:tuwGeographic distributionThe Tungusic languages /tʊŋˈɡuːsɨk/ (also known as Manchu-Tungus, Tungus) form a language family spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria by Tungusic peoples. Many Tungusic languages are endangered, and the long-term future of the family is uncertain. Traditionally, linguists considered Tungusic to be part of the Altaic language family along with the Turkic and Mongoliclanguage families; more recent proposals are that it belongs to Macro-Altaic, the latter including Japanese and Korean as well, or, on the other hand, that Altaic is not a genetic group, but aSprachbund.
ClassificationEdit
Linguists working on Tungusic have proposed a number of different classifications based on different criteria, including morphological, lexical, and phonological characteristics. One classification which seems favoured over others is that the Tungusic languages can be divided into a northern branch and a southern branch (Georg 2004):Northern TungusicEven (Lamut) of eastern SiberiaEvenkiEvenki (obsolete: Tungus), spoken by Evenks in central Siberia and northeastern ChinaOroqenSolonNegidal ?Kili (traditionally considered Nanai)Udege (strongly influenced by Southern Tungusic)OrochUdegeSouthern TungusicManchuJurchen–Manchu of Manchuria, the language of the Jurchen/Manchus, who founded the Jinand Qing dynasties of China.Xibe: spoken in Xinjiang autonomous region by descendants of a Manchurian tribe dispatched by the Qing Dynasty to Xinjiang as a military garrison.NanaiNanai (Gold, Goldi, Hezhen)AkaniBirarSamagirOrok (Uilta)UlchJurchen–Manchu (Jurchen and Manchu are simply different stages of the same language; in fact, the ethnonym "Manchu" did not come about until 1636 when Emperor Hong Taiji decreed that the term would replace "Jurchen") is the only Tungusic language with a literary form (inJurchen script and later the Manchu alphabet) which dates back to at least the mid- to late-12th century; as such it is a very important language for the reconstruction of Proto-Tungusic.The earliest[citation needed] and one of the most important extant texts in Jurchen is the inscription on the back of "the Jin Victory Memorial Stele" (Da Jin deshengtuo songbei), which was erected in 1185, during the Dading period (1161–1189). It is apparently an abbreviated translation of the Chinese text on the front of the stele.[1]Other ancient Tungusic languages include that of the Mohe.
Common characteristics
Relationships with other languages
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Read in another languageLast modified 18 days ago
Mois available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted.Terms of UsePrivacy
simpl.贤trad.賢
Etymology
Phono-semantic compound (形聲): phonetic 臤 + semantic 貝 (“money”) – worthy, valuable (like money)
Han character
賢 (radical 154 貝+8, 15 strokes, cangjie input 尸水月山金 (SEBUC), four-corner 77806,composition ⿱臤貝)virtuous, good, clever, wise, worthyable, capable
http://en.m.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B3%A2
http://education.qld.gov.au/parents/school-life/child-safety-curriculum.html
http://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Manchu/Lesson_12_-_The_Manchu_Script
http://education.qld.gov.au/parents/school-life/child-safety-curriculum.html
Daniel Morcombe Child Safety Curriculum
The Department of Education, Training and Employment, in partnership with the Daniel Morcombe Foundation, has developed the Daniel Morcombe Child Safety Curriculum.The curriculum consists of classroom lessons across three phases of learning: Prep - Year 2 (Early Years), Years 3 - 6 and Years 7 - 9 (Junior Secondary).The curriculum is available to all Queensland schools and aims to teach children about personal safety and awareness, including cybersafety and phone safety, by focusing on three key safety messages: Recognise, React and Report.The curriculum was developed in consultation with Bruce and Denise Morcombe, the Commissioner for Children and Young People and Child Guardian and representatives from the Department of Education, Training and Employment, Queensland Police Service, and the Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability Services, as well as experts in child safety education.
Resources
Parent guides for Prep - Year 2 966k, Year 3 - Year 6 996kand Year 7 - Year 9 1.1M have been developed to inform parents about the curriculum and to help them reinforce the key safety messages at home.A Fact sheet for parents 332kand Frequently asked questions 346k are also available.Specialised resources for schools and teachers include a teacher guide, a safety resource list and a principal and curriculum leaders information guide. These resources will help teachers deliver child safety lessons that reflect current best-practice teaching principles in child safety education.The teaching resources are password protected and available online to state schools via the Learning Place and OneSchool and for non-state schools via Scootle, the National Digital Learning Resources Network managed by Education Services Australia.
Denise and Bruce Morcombe
Denise and Bruce Morcombe have been engaged by the Queensland Government as Child Safety Ambassadors.They will continue to visit schools throughout Queensland in 2013 to deliver key safety messages and create awareness about the curriculum. A list of schools 248k which have hosted a presentation conducted by the Morcombes is available.
Feedback
Parents are invited to participate in a parent survey to provide feedback about the Daniel Morcombe Child Safety Curriculum.The survey takes approximately 10 minutes to complete. All information provided is anonymous.
More information
For more information please read the following documents:Parent Guide: Prep - Year 2 966kParent Guide: Prep - Year 2 69kParent Guide: Year 3 - Year 6 996kParent Guide: Year 3 - Year 6 77kParent Guide: Year 7 - Year 9 1.1MParent Guide: Year 7 - Year 9 62kFact sheet for parents 332kFact sheet for parents 33kFrequently asked questions 346kFrequently asked questions 34kSchools visited by Bruce and Denise Morcombe 248kSchools visited by Bruce and Denise Morcombe 319k.^ Top of pageThis page was last reviewed on 11 Jul 2013
Http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x16xtzi_%E3%85%82%E3%85%8C_creation#from=embediframe
Self makeup and hair perm tips
Six years after death of Korean composer; his 1952 completed original music scores are recovered...
http://www.ionsesang.com/contents/view;http://www.ionsesang.com/contents/view7.html?k=y&piv=32724&s=XNjMyNDQxMDUy
=how was it that hat American military occupied Korea since replacing Japs in 1945...that Koreans experienced hunger and zero financial nor mrdical assistance?
How is it that given June25, 1950 so called puppet war between America vs USSR Russia dispututing who would take Korea; Oct1950 Korean soldiers were without socks nor proper military gear American soldiers had...that Korean slodiers barely had one rice ball a day for food even if that...starvation snd lack of military gear on Korean military is dumbfounding given pix evidence of well fed and well equipped American soldiers occupying Korean peninsula at the same time Korean soldiers had barely once a day fist size rice ball for a meal/ Korean soldiers went barefoot without socks in Oct1950!
